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by the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II. Largely on the basis of testimony by Ethel’s brother, David Greenglass, who had worked on the “A-bomb” project at Los Alamos, New Mexico, he and Ethel were found guilty of supplying Soviet agents with nuclear secrets. Deep in the Cold War, their death sentences provoked international protest and polarized American public opinion, but President Eisenhower, convinced of the couple’s guilt, refused to commute the sentences. (Soviet documents released in the 1990s suggest that Julius was in fact a spy, but that his wife was substantially innocent. Experts continue to debate the actual value of the secrets leaked.)

Rostow, Walt (1916–2003) As adviser to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, Rostow argued persuasively for the expansion of the U.S. role in the Vietnam War, continuing to hold this position long after most other highly placed government officials had concluded that the war was unwinnable and advised withdrawal rather than escalation.

Rothko, Mark (1903–1970) Born Marcus Rothkovitch in Russia, Rothko immigrated to the U.S. with his family in 1913. He began painting in 1925, at first in a realistic style, but gradually developed a new, intensely introspective non-objective style, which evolved into color-field painting. Rothko’s mature canvases juxtapose large areas of soft, almost contourless colors that appear to hover and gently vibrate in space above the painting. The effect is serene, contemplative, and quietly spiritual, a marked contrast to the prevailing freneticism of Abstract Expressionism.

Rothstein, Arthur (1882/1883–1928) Rothstein straddled the worlds of powerful politicians and powerful crime lords as a Prohibition-era bootlegger and gambler who specialized in influence peddling. It is generally believed that Rothstein arranged the bribery scheme that “fixed” (corrupted) the 1919 World Series in the so-called Black Sox baseball scandal. He was mortally wounded by a gunshot in a poker game on November 4, 1928, and died two days later—without revealing the identity of his assailant.

Rowlandson, Mary (circa 1637–1710/11) A New England colonist, Rowlandson and her three children were captured by Indians in February 1676 during King Philip’s War. Rowlandson and two of her children survived; she was ransomed in May 1676 and the children a little later. Rowlandson wrote an account of her captivity, which was published in 1682 and republished many times. The vivid narrative was avidly and widely read and is today regarded as a valuable account of survival and of Indian life.

Rubin, Jerry (1938–1994) Rubin was a sometime journalist who became a social activist in 1964 when he participated in a protest in Berkeley, California, against a local grocer who refused to hire African Americans. Soon Rubin was leading protests of his own. He became a high-profile protest organizer during the Vietnam War and, with Abbie Hoffman, founded the Yippies (Youth International Party), who offered Pigasus, a pig, as their presidential candidate. Rubin developed protest into a kind of street theater and was tried (as one of the “Chicago 7”) for his role in the disruption of 1968 Democratic National Convention.

Ruby, Jack (1911–1967) Born Jacob Rubenstein in Chicago, he changed his name to Jack Ruby in 1947. A small-time mobster, Ruby owned or managed Dallas nightclubs and strip clubs. On November 24, 1963, two days after Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Ruby shot Oswald at point-blank range as he was being transferred from police headquarters to a jail. The shooting was televised. Ruby was convicted of murder on March 14, 1964, and sentenced to death, but was subsequently granted a new trial. He died of a pulmonary embolism before the new proceedings began. Ruby’s motive has never been determined. Some believe he was hired to silence Oswald as part of a conspiracy to assassinate President John F. Kennedy, but all evidence indicates he simply sought vengeance on the killer of the president he greatly admired.

Rush,