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murdered his father. Malcolm Little embarked on a career as a petty criminal, was sentenced to prison for burglary, and, while in prison, became a convert to the Nation of Islam (“Black Muslim”). Rejecting his “slave name,” he called himself Malcolm X. He became a Black Muslim preacher, but, even more, emerged as a charismatic and electrifyingly eloquent speaker on black pride and black nationalism during the early 1960s. His rhetoric was angry, and he presented a dramatic contrast to the non-violent approach of Martin Luther King, Jr. At first unwilling to reconcile with white society, he became increasingly amenable to the coexistence of the races as he matured in his Muslim faith. He was, however, gunned down by Black Muslim assassins on February 21, 1965—but not before he had written (with Alex Haley) The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965), a book that made him a role model and hero to a generation of African-American youth.

Mann, Horace (1796–1859) Raised in poverty and largely self-educated, Mann believed that the prosperity of a democratic society required free universal public education carried out by highly trained professional teachers. He was the nation’s first important advocate of public education.

Manson, Charles (1934– ) Manson was a career criminal, who, in the 1960s—an era in which communes and non-conventional living arrangements were common—led a group he called “the Family” and also known as the “Manson Family.” On August 8, 1969, Manson masterminded the singularly bloody murders of Sharon Tate (pregnant actress wife of movie director Roman Polanski) and four others in the Tate-Polanski Beverly Hills home. On August 9, the Manson Family similarly slaughtered Leno and Rosemary La Bianca in their Los Angeles home. Manson and his “family” were soon captured. Identified as the instigator and planner of the murders, Manson was sentenced to life imprisonment. He came to symbolize the darkest aspects of freewheeling 1960s counterculture and entered the pantheon of American pop culture as the incarnation of senseless but elemental evil.

Marcy, William L. (1786–1857) Marcy was a leading New York state Democrat who, while serving in the Senate, defended and sought to justify the so-called “spoils system” (by which those elected to office enjoyed the privilege of making lucrative political patronage appointments, regardless of an appointee’s qualifications for the position), declaring simply “to the victor belongs the spoils.”

Marion, Francis (1732–1795) A commander of South Carolina forces during the American Revolution, Marion led a band of guerrillas in bold actions that often defeated British military formations of superior strength. His comrades dubbed him the “Swamp Fox,” and his fame was sufficient to propel him into the Senate after the war (1782–90).

Marquette, Jacques (1637–1675) With Louis Jolliet, this French Jesuit missionary explored the Mississippi River and charted its course. The explorations of Jolliett and Marquette were the basis for French claims to the vast territory dubbed Louisiana.

Marshall, George C. (1880–1959) During World War II, Marshall was chief of staff of the U.S. Army—the senior officer of the army. After the war, he served Harry S. Truman as secretary of state (1947–1949) and then as secretary of defense (1950–1951). While he was secretary of state, Marshall collaborated on and championed the European Recovery Program—a massive U.S. funding of postwar recovery—which was popularly known as the Marshall Plan. He was recognized in 1953 with the Nobel Prize for Peace—the first former professional soldier to be awarded the prize.

Marshall, John (1755–1835) Marshall was the fourth chief justice of the United States and perhaps the Supreme Court’s single most important figure. He was the architect of American system of constitutional law, and he raised the judicial branch to equal status with the executive and legislative branches of the U.S. government by introducing the doctrine of judicial review, whereby the Supreme Court has the authority to determine the constitutionality