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Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development emphasized the role of the environment (nurture) and gradual growth (continuity) in intellectual functioning.

Internalization—the process of absorbing information from a specified social environmental context.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children.

Alzheimer’s disease—a fatal degenerative disease in which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily functions, then death.

Moral development:

Moral development—growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development; moral thinking develops in stages as cognitive abilities develop, with 3 levels divided into 6 sequential stages:

• Preconventional level—when at the preoperational stage of cognitive development Do the right thing to

stage 1—avoid punishment, obey authority

stage 2—further self-interests, gain reward

• Conventional level—when at the concrete operational stage of cognitive development or formal operational stage for most people

stage 3—conform, live up to expectations of others

stage 4—maintain law and order, do your duty

• Postconventional level—reached by only some people in the formal operational stage

stage 5—social contract, to promote the society’s welfare

stage 6—to promote justice

Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s study because it focused on males, and women rarely reach Kohlberg’s highest stage. She said women follow an ethic of care, rather than justice.

Social development:

Social development looks at the influence of others on the development of a person.

Culture—behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions transmitted from one generation to the next within a group of people who share a common language and environment.

Bonding—creation of close emotional relationship between mother (or parents) and baby shortly after birth.

Attachment—a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the caregiver.

Harry Harlow found monkeys separated from their mothers sought comfort from a soft cloth-covered substitute (surrogate) rather than a bare wire substitute with a feeding bottle, showing attachment isn’t based on feeding.

Mary Ainsworth’s “strange situation” research categorized type of attachment based on how baby reacted to, and after, temporary absence of mother:

Secure attachment—after absence baby is happy to see mother, receptive to her contact.

Insecure attachment—after absence baby is angry and rejecting of mother, avoids her, ignores her, or behaves inconsistently.

Securely attached babies tend to become socially competent children.

Temperament—an infant’s natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period.

• Easy babies—cheerful, relaxed; follow predictable patterns of eating and sleeping.

• Difficult babies—irritable, intense, unpredictable.

In general, easy babies tend to become sociable children, and difficult babies less sociable.

Self-awareness—consciousness of oneself as a person.

Social referencing—observing the behavior of others in social situations to obtain information or guidance.

Diana Baumrind identified four parenting styles that affect emotional growth of children:

Authoritarian parenting style—sets up absolute and restrictive rules accompanied by punishment for disobedience.

Authoritative parenting style—focuses on flexible rules for which reasons are generally given. Parents are warm and nurture independence within guidelines.

Permissive parenting style—sets no firm guidelines for behavior and tends to give in to demands of the child.

Uninvolved parenting style—makes few demands, shows low responsiveness and little communication.

For individualistic cultures, the most self-reliant, socially competent children with