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As we learned in the unit on cognition, we form concepts by organizing people and objects in categories or groups. Categorizing people leads to our perception of in-groups and out-groups. In-groups are groups of which we are members, and out-groups are groups to which we do not belong. We tend to favor our own groups, attributing more favorable qualities to “us” (in-group favoritism), and attributing more negative qualities to “them” (out-group derogation). Social psychologists have studied ethnic and racial tensions, searching for causes and potential solutions. If we can halt the more negative tendencies of conflict, and increase cooperation, we will lessen social problems.

Causes of Conflict

Prejudice is defined as an unjustified negative attitude an individual has for another, based solely on that person’s membership in a different racial or ethnic group. Discrimination occurs when those prejudiced attitudes result in unjustified behavior toward members of that group. Both often arise as a result of stereotypes, or mental schemas society attributes uncritically to these different groups. Most are unaware of how these damaging images can lead to both negative attitudes and treatment of others (like the self-fulfilling prophecy explained above). Stereotypes about Jews, Blacks, Italians, the rich, or cheerleaders lie dormant in our thought patterns and can easily lead to attitudes and behavior we would label prejudicial and discriminatory.

Scapegoat theory offers one possible explanation for these unjustified attitudes and behaviors. A classic example of this is Hitler’s use of the Jews during Nazi Germany. When our self-worth is in doubt or in jeopardy, we become frustrated and tend to find others to blame. Hitler was able to whip up negative attitudes toward Jews (scapegoats) as a result of the frustration Germans felt about the humiliating defeat and reparations after World War I. Ethnocentrism is the basic belief that our culture is superior to others. This can easily lead to an in-group/out-group belief system based on limited information about others. Out-group homogeneity is a tendency to believe all members of another group are more similar than is true. Hitler increased German pride (ethnocentrism) by suggesting Aryan superiority and blaming all problems on the out-group—scapegoated Jews. Since all Jews were thought to be similar, atrocities during the Holocaust could temporarily be justified.

Increasing Cooperation

What solutions can social psychologists offer to turn group conflict into group cooperation and lessen tensions between different groups? Contact theory proposes that equal status contact between antagonistic groups should lower tension and increase harmony. Muzafer Sherif showed in his classic boys’ camp study that by creating a superordinate goal (an emergency situation that required joint cooperation of both groups to solve), conflicting groups could lessen their feelings of hostility and get rid of some of the stereotypes that lack of knowledge of the other group had created. Sherif’s camp consisted of 20 boys divided into two groups of 10. Each group bonded together for a week and engaged in competitive games against the other group. In-group solidarity developed among those in the separated groups and intergroup conflict arose from the competitive games between the groups. Fights between the groups outside of the competitions became increasingly more hostile. By creating the superodinate goal, the boys cooperated together and their prior prejudices disappeared.

“Make flashcards. AP Psychology is ALL about the vocabulary, in both the essay and the multiple choice. Since a lot of the terms are common sense, you want to make sure that you remember the actual definition, not just a vague, layman’s term idea of the particular term.”

—Lizzie, AP student

Integration of public schools established by the Supreme Court in 1954 was based on this same premise. When Texas decided to end segregation of Mexican American children and integrate previously all-Anglo schools, ethnic tensions immediately