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• Classic-Fiction

• Conditioned stimulus (CS)—a neutral stimulus (NS) at first, but when paired with the UCS, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).

• Acquisition—in classical conditioning, learning to give a known response to a new stimulus, the neutral stimulus

Delayed conditioning—ideal training—NS precedes UCS; briefly overlaps.

Simultaneous conditioning—NS and UCS paired together at same time.

Trace conditioning—NS presented first, removed, then the UCS is presented.

Backward conditioning—UCS presented first and NS follows.

Conditioned taste aversion—an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

Temporal conditioning—time serves as the NS.

• Extinction—repeatedly presenting a CS without a UCS leads to return of NS.

• Spontaneous recovery—after extinction, and without training, the previous CS suddenly elicits the CR again temporarily.

• Generalization—stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training.

• Discrimination—the ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the CS elicits the CR.

• Higher-order conditioning—classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.

Aversive conditioning—learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer.

Avoidance behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins. Escape behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already started.

Instrumental learning—associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences.

Law of Effect—behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened.

Operant conditioning—learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain voluntary behavior and the consequences of the behavior (pleasant or unpleasant) determine the likelihood of its recurrence.

• Positive reinforcement—a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

• Primary reinforcer—something that is biologically important and, thus, rewarding.

• Secondary reinforcer—something rewarding because it is associated with a primary reinforcer.

• Generalized reinforcer—secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers.

• Premack principle—a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one.

• Negative reinforcement—removal of an aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; two types are escape and avoidance.

• Punishment—an aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

• Omission training—removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

• Shaping—positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior.

• Chaining establishes a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence, then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

A reinforcement schedule states how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner.

• Continuous reinforcement—schedule that provides reinforcement following the particular behavior every time it is emitted; best for acquisition of a new behavior.

• Partial reinforcement or intermittent schedule—occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior; produces responding that is more resistant to extinction.

• Fixed ratio—reinforcement of a particular behavior after a specific number of responses.

• Fixed interval—reinforcement of the first particular response made after a specific length of time.

• Variable ratio—reinforcement of a particular behavior after a number of responses that changes at random around an average number.

• Variable