Adventures Among Ants - Mark W. Moffett [162]
14. R Jeanson, JH Fewell, R Gorelick, SM Bertram 2007, Emergence of increased division of labor as a function of group size, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62: 289–298.
15. See, e.g., JM Herbers 1981, Reliability theory and foraging by ants, J. Theor. Biol. 89: 175–189.
16. T Pham 1924, Sur le régime alimentaire d’une espèce de fourmi Indochinoise (Pheidologeton diversus Ierdon), Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 10: 131–135.
17. ML Roonwal 1975, Plant-pest status of root-eating ant, Dorylus orientalis, with notes on taxonomy, distribution, and habits, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 305–313.
18. Granivory has in turn been hypothesized to have evolved from carnivory, in areas of limited protein sources; see JH Brown, OJ Reichman, DW Davidson 1979, Granivory in desert ecosystems, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10: 201–227.
19. On this military tactic, see Basil H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, 2d ed. (London: Faber & Faber, 1967).
20. Judged by the marauder ant’s cousin, affinis; see SM Berghoff, U Maschwitz, KE Linsenmair 2003, Influence of the hypogaeic army ant Dorylus (Dichthadia) laevigatus on tropical arthropod communities, Oecologia 135: 149–157.
21. Harlan K. Ullman and James P. Wade, Shock and Awe: Achieving Rapid Dominance (Washington, D.C.: Center for Advanced Concepts and Technology, 1996), p. 25.
22. NR Franks, LW Partridge 1993, Lanchester battles and the evolution of combat in ants, Anim. Behav. 45: 197–199.
23. Another extraordinary exception is the jumping spider Portia, which catches a diversity of spider prey; see DP Harland, RR Jackson, Portia perceptions: The umwelt of an araneophagic jumping spider, in Complex Worlds from Simpler Nervous Systems, ed. Frederick R. Prete (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), pp. 5–40. For further information on ecological specialization, see DP Vázquez, RD Stevens 2004, The latitudinal gradient in niche breadth: Concepts and evidence, Am. Nat. 164: E1–E19; and DJ Futuyma, G Moreno 1988, The evolution of ecological specialization, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19: 207–233.
24. Similar experiments have since been done on a New World army ant—moving prey around in the litter and providing dead insects, for example—showing that the ants can subdivide their swarm raids to create a multipronged search pattern that is more efficient in dealing with food patches; see NR Franks, N Gomez, S Goss, J-L Deneubourg 1991, The blind leading the blind in army ant raid patterns: Testing a model of self-organization, J. Insect Behav. 4: 583–607.
25. Marauder ant raids can begin by recruitment overrun in response to food found on or near a trail by a single worker (chapter 2). Other ants use solitary foragers to investigate areas in this way, including excess recruited ants and ants lost from trails. One army ant in the southwestern United States exhibits similar behavior: after a raid begins to plunder an ant colony for its brood, further column raids spread outward from there in all directions, and as a result the ants often find more nest entrances nearby; see HR Topoff, J Mirenda, R Droual, S Herrick 1980, Behavioural ecology of mass recruitment in the army ant Neivamyrmex nigrescens, Anim. Behav. 28: 779–789.
26. S Garnier, J Gautrais, G Theraulaz 2007, The biological principles of swarm intelligence, Swarm Intell. 1: 3–31; and Marco Dorigo and Thomas Stützle, Ant Colony Optimization (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).
27. Charles Darwin, Descent of Man (London: John Murray, 1872), 1: 140.
28. Lewis Thomas, Lives of the Cell (New York: Viking Press, 1974), p. 12; for ant colonies as brains, see W Gronenberg 2008, Structure and function of ant brains: Strength in numbers, Myrmecol. News 11: 25–36.
29. MW Moffett 1987, Ants that go with the flow: A new method of orientation by mass communication, Naturwissenschaften 74: 551–553.
30. DE Jackson, M Holcombe, FLW Ratnieks 2004, Trail geometry gives polarity to ant foraging networks, Nature 432: 907–909.
31. Among trail-laying ants,