Adventures Among Ants - Mark W. Moffett [180]
17. W Czechowski 2006, Route of Formica polyctena as a factor promoting emancipation of Formica fusca slaves from colonies of Polyergus rufescens, Pol. J. Ecol. 54: 159–162.
18. Some fleeting tussles between slaves and slavemakers have also been recorded, most prevalently in species in the early stages of the evolution of slavemaking; see Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson, The Ants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), p. 463; and EO Wilson 1975, Leptothorax duloticus and the beginnings of slavery in ants, Evolution 29: 108–119.
19. Karl Marx’s idea of false consciousness was given its name by Friedrich Engels; see György Lukács, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971).
20. Even the adult workers may shift over from a losing colony; see GB Pollock, SW Rissing 1989, Intraspecific brood raiding, territoriality, and slavery in ants, Am. Nat. 133: 61–70.
21. For similar reasons, the myth of Tarzan, raised by apes, is more plausible than that of Romulus and Remus, the legendary wolf-raised founders of Rome. A stunning exception for the ants is a parasitic species that never rears its own brood but rather sneaks it into the nurseries of a distantly related species; see U Maschwitz, C Go, E Kaufmann, A Buschinger 2004, A unique strategy of host colony exploitation in a parasitic ant: Workers of Polyrhachis lama rear their brood in neighbouring host nests, Naturwissenschaften 91: 40–43. Should employing a related species for labor be called slavery? In Planet of the Apes, at least, we accept that apes have turned humans into “slaves” without the word sounding a false note.
22. M Stoneking 2003, Widespread prehistoric human cannibalism: Easier to swallow, Trends Ecol. Evol. 18: 489–490.
23. Thanks to Sarah Hrdy for examples. One author proposes that kidnapping by primates is “ancestral” to slavery among humans, a view I have trouble believing: “Surrounded by strangers I thought were my friends,” Ethology 113: 499–510.
24. These birds do not imprint on their parents and therefore will follow whatever authority figure gives the right signal; see RG Heinsohn 1991, Kidnapping and reciprocity in cooperatively breeding white-winged choughs, Anim. Behav. 41: 1097–1100.
25. R Blatrix, JM Herbers 2003, Coevolution between slave-making ants and their hosts: Host specificity and geographic variation, Mol. Ecol. 12: 2809–2816.
26. JM Herbers 2006, The loaded language of science, Chron. High. Educ. 52: B5. A technical alternative is the term dulosis, derived from the Greek word for slave.
27. H Topoff, Slave-making queens, Scientific American 281: 84–90.
28. Chris Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); and Robert L. O’Connell, Ride the Second Horseman: The Birth and Death of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
29. Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson, Journey to the Ants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 9.
30. Frans de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
31. This section summarizes Topoff, Slave-making queens, cited in n. 27.
32. DA Grasso, A Mori, F Le Moli, J Billen 2005, Morpho-functional comparison of the Dufour gland in the female castes of the Amazon ant Polyergus rufescens, Zoomorphology 124: 149–153.
33. Topoff, Slave-making queens, p. 87, cited in n. 27.
34. It is conceivable that the queen plays a primary role in determining the odor used to signal colony identity in these ants, as has been shown with the related carpenter ants; see NF Carlin, B Hölldobler 1983, Nestmate and kin recognition in interspecific mixed colonies of ants, Science 222: 1027–1029. See also H Topoff, E Zimmerli 1993, Colony takeover by a socially parasitic ant, Polyergus breviceps: The role of chemicals obtained during host-queen killing, Anim. Behav. 46: 479–486.
35. A Buschinger 1986, Evolution of social parasitism in ants, Trends