Augustus_ The Life of Rome's First Emperor - Anthony Everitt [18]
When Caesar was consul in 59 B.C., he ignored the vetoes of his optimate colleagues and pushed controversial legislation through the assembly. This was a breach of the constitution, and his enemies neither forgot nor forgave the high-handedness. However, officeholders were immune from prosecution and for the time being he could not be taken to court.
The Senate was furious but powerless. Sooner or later, it hoped, the trio would quarrel. Then the time would come when the optimates could take their revenge. The Senate’s leading personality at this time was Marcus Porcius Cato—a dour man. Plutarch reports: “It was really very difficult to make him laugh, although once in a while, he allowed himself to relax his features into a smile.” He refused to use perfume and his personal habits were severe. He always walked, and trained himself to endure extremes of heat and cold. He was a hard worker and prided himself on never telling a lie; his reputation inspired a proverb—“That cannot be true, even if Cato says it is.” His way of life was a reproach to the decadence of the times, so much so that he could infuriate his friends as well as his enemies.
Whereas Caesar appears to have been an abstemious drinker, Cato was puritanical in everything except for an enormous capacity for alcohol and a surprising weakness for gambling. He remarked that “Caesar was the only sober man who tried to wreck the constitution.”
After his consulship, Caesar went to rule Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul (northern Italy and southern France). Wanting to prove himself as a general, he invaded the rest of Gaul (central and northern France and Belgium). When he needed more time to complete the conquest, he arranged a second five-year term as governor. By 49 B.C., he had added a huge new province to the empire—and in so doing created an experienced army that would follow wherever he led.
In 53 B.C., Crassus commanded an expedition against the Parthian empire. The Parthians were fierce former nomads who became the dominating force on the Iranian plateau during the third century B.C. From about 190 B.C., they intermittently governed Mesopotamia, the heartland of the old Assyrian and Babylonian empires. They were highly skilled horsemen, famous for the “Parthian shot”: they rode up to the enemy, then suddenly galloped away, turning round in their seat to loose an arrow. The Romans, who depended on infantry, found these highly mobile fighters hard to defeat.
This was problematic, for the Parthian monarchs were aggressive, with a tendency to meddle in Rome’s eastern provinces and in the client kingdoms that acted as a buffer between the two empires and that Rome saw as within its sphere of influence. Both sides aimed to control the strategically important, semi-independent kingdom of Armenia (it looked both eastward and westward, being attached to the plateau of Asia Minor and the Iranian plateau, and it had long been a bone of contention). Luckily, murderous dynastic disputes often distracted the Parthians from foreign adventures.
Rome was itself frequently guilty of interference. A few years previously, the proconsul of Syria had supported a claimant to the Parthian crown, a move which, although unsuccessful, naturally infuriated the sitting monarch.
As a result, relations between the two powers were icy, and each side felt it had good reason to launch a preventive war against the other. Hostilities were hastened by Crassus’ personal ambitions, for he was intent on winning military glory that would rival the achievements