Beyond Feelings - Vincent Ruggiero.original_ [54]
Sam is in the habit of arriving late to English class. Yesterday the professor told him that the next time he was tardy, he would be refused admission. Today Sam got a composition back with a grade of D. He reasons the professor gave him a low grade out of anger over Sam's lateness. Sam has committed the fallacy of false cause. Maybe the professor did lower the grade for that reason, maybe not. Without additional evidence, Sam should withhold judgment.
STRAW MAN
As the term implies, straw man is an argument without substance. This fallacy consists of pretending one's adversary has said something false and then proceeding to demonstrate that it is false. Suppose you are debating whether legislation should be enacted restricting the sale of assault weapons. You state that you support such legislation because assault weapons are designed, not for hunting or even for self-defense but for killing people, often indiscriminately. Your opponent responds, "So you believe you should decide what weapons are acceptable and what weapons aren't. It's exactly this kind of arrogance by self-appointed social reformers that everyone who lives the constitutions should fear."
Your opponent has committed the straw man fallacy. Perhaps she did so consciously to put you on the defensive. (The best response is to point out what she has done: "First you put irresponsible words in my mouth and then you say I'm irresponsible. I'd prefer to hear your reaction to what I really said."
IRRATIONAL APPEALS
Irrational appeals urge us to accept ideas at face value or on some other basis than reasonableness. They are considered logical fallacies because they say, in effect, "You don't have to think about this matter – there is no danger of error here." And that is, itself, a serious error. The danger of error always exists, and thinking critically is the best way to minimize that danger.
Irrational appeals usually take one of the following forms:
Appeal to emotion. this appeal urges the uncritical acceptance of strong feelings; for example, love of family or country, fear, resentment, guilt.
Appeal to Tradition or Faith. This appeal urges maintaining past customs or beliefs not because they are applicable to the present situation, but merely because they have always been maintained.
Appeal to Moderation. An appeal to moderation urges a moderate view not because it is the most reasonable view, but merely because it is inoffensive to anyone.
Appeal to Authority. This appeal urges the unquestioning acceptance of an authority's view. The authority may be a person, a book or document, or an agency (such as the Supreme Court).
Appeal to Common Sense. This appeal is often accompanied by such phrases as "everyone knows that," "no reasonable person would deny that," and "it's common sense." (Many ideas that were at one time accepted as common sense – such as sacrificing young virgins to ensure a good harvest and abandoning deformed babies to die – are now recognized as uncommon nonsense or worse.)
Appeals to emotion, tradition, faith, moderation, authority, or common sense are not necessarily irrational. In many cases they are rational – that is, they invite, rather than discourage, critical thinking. Be sure to distinguish between rational and irrational appeals whenever you evaluate issues.
IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES
It's tempting to think that if we find errors, we automatically disprove the conclusion. That's not so. The conclusion may be reasonable in spite of the errors. Whenever you examine an issue remember that, as important as it is to recognize and avoid errors, your main objective is to find the most reasonable, supportable view.
APPLICATIONS
Examine each of the following arguments carefully. If you are uninformed about the issue it addresses, do some research. Then decide which view of the issue is most reasonable. Be alert for logical fallacies in the arguments