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to be consumers while open fans are more likely to be productive. However, that is not always the case. For example, one can envision the difference between a loyal Star Trekfan who writes a good deal of Star Trek fan fiction, but who is concerned with the way that fan fiction fits with the canon of the Star Trek universe and whether or not their portrayal of the character is true to the original work. This player is productive, creating his or her own texts, but also loyal. Contrast this with a fan fiction writer who prefers to write a story that features a love affair between Captain Kirk from Star Trek and Princess Leia from Star Wars. This fan would also be productive—engaging in a creative way with texts and creating their own. However, this fan is less concerned about one particular fandom and is open to crossing between fandoms. As a result, they are probably also less concerned with keeping canon.

The final trait I propose is the community-oriented fan versus the individual fan. Again, this is a sliding scale. TRPGs, for example, must have a community of sorts since they must be played with a group. Thus, they may not attract fans completely on the individual end of the scale. However, there are degrees to which the player is involved within the larger gaming community. A TRPG fan may be social with one steady gaming group or he or she my attend conventions and meet a number of players. Likewise, a more community-oriented gamer might participate in online forums talking about D&D. The same can be said for other fan-based cultures. Whether or not fans attend conventions or connect online with others, or whether they only write stories for themselves will determine their position in relation to this trait.

The Future of Fan Studies

The criticism against early studies that saw fandom and subcultures as groups that responded against the dominant consumer culture are not completely unfounded. However, current studies should move to a more audience-centered view of fandom and of gaming. A given fan may consume texts by purchasing new modules and may choose to focus on detailed rules rather than character creation. Yet, that same fan may ally him or herself with the subculture of gaming by attending conventions and interacting directly with game designers on a message board. There are not only many aspects to fandom, there are many traits that vary in any given fan.

In general, we might be able to say that participatory culture—culture where we produce and consume, where we participate more actively with texts—is becoming more mainstream. It is becoming harder to separate a sub culture from a mainstream one. Nevertheless, we must also acknowledge that not all current media or entertainment industries allow for the sort of relationship between user and text, between author and reader, gamer and designer, as does the TRPG. While fan fiction may have increased dramatically in popularity, there is nothing within the medium of television or film that prompts viewers to interact productively. According to Winkler (2006), “gaming requires one to engage with the game and with other players, thereby simultaneously mediating and constructing one’s experience,” which he sees as a key difference between the gaming and the film industry (p. 151). Furthermore, Winkler (2006) argues that the computer gaming industry is different from the TRPG industry because it is more often run by large corporations and the games are sold at large chain retailers (p. 143).5 Even with a blurred line, TRPGs can still be seen more as a subculture than as a dominant culture. In addition, the form itself requires players to be more productive than other forms. Even if Fletch was a big consumer in the world of Sorpraedor, buying up all the best items from the Dungeons Master’s Guide rule book and taking all the best skills, Nick was still the creator; the producer behind the scenes of Fletch. While some texts appear more static and less likely to receive a fannish response, there has always been an audience that takes a more productive and creative