Crime and Punishment in American History - Lawrence M. Friedman [306]
69 George W. Dalzell, Benefit of Clergy in America and Related Matters (1955), p. 98.
70 Quoted in Hugh F. Rankin, Criminal Trial Proceeding in the General Court of Colonial Virginia (1965), p. 108.
71 Hoffer and Scott, Criminal Proceedings in Colonial Virgina, p. lxxii.
72 Hening, Statutes of Virginia, Vol. 4, p. 271, pp. 324-25.
73 David H. Flaherty, “Criminal Practice in Provincial Massachusetts,” in Law in Colonial Massachusetts, 1630-1800 (Vol. 62, Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1984), pp. 191, 236-39.
74 Laws and Liberties, at pp. 4-5.
75 Philip Schwarz, Twice Condemned: Slaves and the Criminal Laws of Virginia, 1705-1865 (1989), p. 15.
76 See Daniel Horsmanden, The New York Conspiracy (ed., Thomas J. Davis, 1971; the original was published in 1744).
77 See, for example, Kai Erikson, Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance (1966), pp. 141-59; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft (1974). On witchcraft in the colonies more generally, see John P. Demos, Entertaining Satan: Withcraft in the Culture of Early New England (1982); Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (1987).
78 I am indebted to Darryl L. Peterkin, a graduate student in history at Princeton University, for the material on Grace Sherwood and on witchcraft in North Carolina in general.
79 Demos, Entertaining Satan, pp. 179, 181.
80 Quoted in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648-1706 (1914), p. 413.
81 Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem-Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in Colonial New England (1972), pp. 9-12.
82 Burr, Narratives (letter of Governor William Phips), p. 196.
83 David T. Konig, Law and Society in Puritan Massachusetts: Essex County, 1629-1692 (1979), pp. 171-72.
84 Ibid., pp. 173-74.
85 Erikson, Wayward Puritans, p. 149.
86 Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman, p. 181.
87 Horsmanden, The New York Conspiracy, pp. 273-74. When Hughson was on the way to the gallows, he was seen “to have a red spot on each cheek, about the bigness of a shilling, which at that time [was] thought very remarkable, for he was always pale of visage” (p. 165).
88 Pleasants, Proceedings of the County Court of Charles County, pp. 163-64.
89 Greenberg, Crime ... in the Colony of New York, p. 125. On the colonial background of imprisonment in general, see Adam J. Hirsch, The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America (1992).
90 H. Clay Reed and George J. Miller, The Burlington Court Book: A Record of Quaker Jurisprudence in West New Jersey, 1680-1705 (1944), pp. 79-80.
91 There is abundant material on imprisonment for debt during the colonial period in Peter J. Coleman, Debtors and Creditors in America: Insolvency, Imprisonment for Debt and Bankruptcy, 1607-1900 (1974).
92 Laws N.H. 1718, pp. 254-55.
93 Coleman, Debtors and Creditors, p. 75.
94 Staughton George et al., eds., Charter to William Penn and the Laws of the Province of Pennsylvania passed between the years 1682 and 1700 (1879), p. 121 (“Great Law or The Body of Laws” of 1682, chap. 53, 54).
95 Laws N.H. 1718, pp. 73-74.
96 Laws Gen’l. Ct., Massachusetts Bay, 1673, p. 8.
97 Quoted in Philip D. Jordan, Frontier Law and Order (1970), p. 140.
98 Greenberg, Crime ... in the Colony of New York, p. 50.
99 Hull, Female Felons, p. 61.
100 Ibid., p. 53.
101 Hull, Female Felons, p. 115.
102 Acts and Laws, General Court of Massachusetts Bay, 1692, p. 186; see Hull, Female Felons, p. 27. Apparently, however, no woman was ever, in fact, executed for concealing a birth.
103 Peter C. Hoffer and Natalie E. H. Hull, Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England, 1558-1803 (1981), p. 74. On similar leniency in Pennsylvania, despite a fair number of convictions, and eight executions, see G. S. Rowe, “Infanticide,