Crime and Punishment in American History - Lawrence M. Friedman [317]
6 Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860—1920 (1981), pp. 164—68.
7 Evening News (Detroit), Feb. 12, 1880, p. 4.
8 Sidney L. Harring, Policing a Class Society: The Experience of American Cities, 1865—1915 (1983), p. 244.
9 Lawrence M. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870—1910 (1981), p.88.
10 Friedman and Percival, Roots of Justice, p. 101.
11 Address by Charles E. Felton, to the National Prison Association, in Proceedings of the Annual Congress, National Prison Assocation (1888), pp. 195, 198—99.
12 Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, pp. 86—128.
13 Wines, Delinquent Classes, 1880 Census, p. 566.
14 Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, p. 90.
15 Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform (1977), pp. 18—19.
16 Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, pp. 31, 142.
17 Walker, Police Reform, p. 63.
18 The actual term was used, for example, in George W. Walling’s Recollections of a New York Chief of Police (1887), p. 189.
19 Z. Chafee, Jr., W. H. Pollak, and Carl S. Stem, The Third Degree (1931; reprint ed., 1969), pp. 38—39.
20 Walling, Recollections, p. 194. George S. McWatters, who wrote about the “hidden life of American detectives” in New York in the 1870s, made a somewhat similar point about detectives: with their “crafts and hypocrisies” they were “constantly breaking in upon common law and ... statute law.” But this illegality was absolutely essential in a “corrupt civilization.” These tactics were the “silent, secret and effective Avenger of the outraged Majesty of the Law when everything else fails.” Knots Untied: or Ways and By-ways in the Hidden Life of American Detectives (1873), p. 664. See chapter 9.
21 See Dennis C. Rousey, “Cops and Guns: Police Use of Deadly Force in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans,” American Journal of Legal History 28:41(1984).
22 John C. Schneider, Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830—1880 (1980), p. 118.
23 Report, Special Committee appointed to investigate the Police Department of the City of New York (1895), pp. 15—17.
24 Ibid., pp. 21—33.
25 Ibid., pp. 27—44.
26 See Perry R. Duis, The Saloon: Public Drinking in Chicago and Boston, 1880—1920 (1983), pp. 240—41.
27 Walker, Police Reform, p. 24.
28 Blake McKelvey, American Prisons: A Study in American Social History Prior to 1915 (1936), p. 34.
29 See, for example, Paul W. Keve, The History of Corrections in Virginia (1986).
30 Michael S. Hindus, Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767—1878 (1980), p. 169. In 1863, another facet of the Massachusetts prison was consigned to oblivion: the admission of visitors on payment of a twenty-five-cent fee.
31 McKelvey, American Prisons, p. 32.
32 Hutchins Hapgood, The Autobiography of a Thief (1903), p. 141.
33 Laws Ill. 1845, pp. 105—7; Laws Ill. 1871—72, p. 294; Andrew A. Bruce et al., The Workings of the Indeterminate-Sentence Law and the Parole System in Illinois (1928; reprint ed., 1968), p. 26.
34 Shelley Bookspan, A Germ of Goodness: The California State Prison System, 1851—1944 (1991), p. 2.
35 Keve, The History of Corrections in Virginia, p. 90.
36 2d Ann. Rpt., Prison Comm. of Ga. (1899), p. 21.
37 On the ages of prisoners: ibid., p. 22. The data on literacy are from the year before: 1st Annual Report, Prison Commission of Georgia, 1898, p. 31. In that year, of 2,228 prisoners, 1,290 were single; the rest were married. (Ibid., p. 30.)
38 Edward L. Ayers, Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth-Century American South (1984), p. 186.
39 Keve, The History of Corrections in Virginia, p. 74.
40 Ayers, Vengeance and Justice, pp. 178—79.
41 Ibid., p. 226.
42 So. Dak. Stats. 1899, Vol. 2, secs. 8964, 8966, 8970.
43 General Laws R.I. 1896, pp. 1049, 1050.
44 Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law (2d ed., 1985), pp. 600—601.
45 James Leiby, Charity and Correction in New Jersey (1967), pp. 126—28.
46 Glen A. Gildemeister, Prison Labor and