Don't Know Much About Mythology - Kenneth C. Davis [158]
With the introduction of the Upanishads between 800 and 500 BCE, a striking shift in India’s mythic mind-set took place. The emphasis was no longer on the simple, ancient belief in sacrificing to individual gods who could provide protection, send a good husband, or bring rain to make the plants grow. The emergence of the Upanishads ushered in a new era of far more abstract belief, in which the many gods of ancient times were reduced to the single concept called Brahman, and the emphasis was placed on escaping an endless cycle of death, rebirth, and reincarnation in order for the human soul to link with Brahman, the Absolute Godhead.
Making that cosmic leap involved another notion introduced with the Upanishads—that of karma, the law of cause and effect which dictates that every action has consequences that influence how the soul will be reborn. Unlike the Egyptian or Christian notion, in which proper behavior might guarantee a pleasant afterlife, this Indian concept—simply put—held that living a good life means the soul will be born into a higher state in its next incarnation. An evil life did not mean eternal damnation but a rebirth of the soul into a lower state, possibly even as an animal. This ongoing cycle of life-death-reincarnation continues until a person ultimately achieves spiritual perfection, at which point the soul enters a new level of existence called moksha (“release” or “salvation”), in which it is joined with Brahman, the divine godhead.
As these more abstract religious concepts took hold, the old rituals were not abandoned, but made part of a new order that was contained within a concept called dharma—an all-inclusive sense of moral and spiritual “duty” with implications of truth and righteousness as well. In essence, dharma means the correct way of living. Maintaining dharma is believed to bring rhythm to the natural world and order in society. When dharma is not upheld, the result is uncertainty, natural disaster, and accidents—what Star Wars would call “a great disturbance in the Force,” or as Lemony Snicket of children’s book fame might put it, “A Series of Unfortunate Events.” Essential to maintaining dharma was careful adherence to sacred religious observances and the social order. Every man was supposed to do his duty as defined by his station. For women, as Devdutt Pattanaik notes, “There was only one dharma: obeying the father when unmarried, the husband when married, and the son when widowed.” Not exactly a modern feminist’s idea of Nirvana, but certainly in line with the notions of most other male-dominated ancient societies.
The core of Brahmanism’s order was the Brahmin social structure, which evolved into the Hindu caste system. A highly rigid division of social classes, the caste system may have existed in some form before the Aryan invaders—or immigrants—arrived in the Indus Valley. But as the Aryans and their descendants gradually gained control of most of India, the caste system was used, at first, to limit contact between themselves and the aboriginal people known as Dravidians. The Sanskrit word for caste means “color,” and it is widely thought that the tall, fairer-skinned, and possibly blue-eyed Aryans imposed this system on the darker-skinned aboriginal Dravidians.
The three original divisions later became four principal castes—gradually divided into many layers of subcastes—each with its own rules of behavior, particularly regarding marriage. Marrying outside of one’s caste—like an English aristocrat marrying a “commoner”—just wasn’t done. It was not dharma.
On top of the caste system were the Brahmins, the priests and scholars concerned with spiritual matters; next came Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors who administered the society; beneath them were the Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals who managed the