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the familiar Nativity tale of “Three Wise Men”—also called “Three Kings”—from the East, who come to honor the newborn Christ child, lying in a manger in Bethlehem, with three famous gifts: gold, frankincense, and myrrh. The Gospel of Matthew describes these visitors as “magi,” translated from the Greek as “wise men,” who follow a miraculous star to Bethlehem. Though their number and names are never specified in the biblical account, “three wise men” are presumed because there are three gifts. Only in medieval times were they given the names Melchior, Balthasar, and Gaspar.

So who were these “wise men”?

Magi were the hereditary members of a Persian priesthood, known for interpreting omens and dreams, for their astrological skills, and for practicing magic (“magi” is where the word “magician” comes from). This vast knowledge of rituals gained them the reputation as the true priests of Zoroastrianism, a religion founded by a Persian prophet named Zoroaster. Little is known of Zoroaster (the more widely used Greek for the Persian name Zarathustra), except that Zoroastrian tradition places him as living around 600 BCE. But many scholars believe that he lived between 1400 and 1000 BCE.

Zoroastrianism holds a belief in one god, Ahura Mazda, who created all things. Zoroaster also taught that the earth is a battleground where a great struggle is taking place between the spirits of good and evil. Ahura Mazda calls upon everyone to fight in this struggle, and each person will be judged at death on how well he or she fought. It is not known whether the magi, whose practices predate Zoroaster, influenced the prophet Zoroaster, or if they became his followers. But the magi became part of Zoroastrian belief and were said to keep watch upon a “Mount of the Lord” until a great star appeared that would signal the coming of a savior. In other words, centuries before Jesus was born, a Middle Eastern religion flourished with one god, a battle between good and evil, a judgment day, and resurrection.

The connection between ancient Persia and Christmas doesn’t end there. Mithra was an ancient sun god of the Aryan tribes who settled in ancient Persia. According to Zoroastrian traditions, Mithra was said to be an ally of the supreme god Ahura Mazda, and under Ahura Mazda’s leadership, Mithra and other gods fought against the Zoroastrian god of evil.

The Persians spread the worship of Mithra throughout Asia Minor during the period when they dominated Mesopotamia and the Middle East, from about 539 BCE, under King Cyrus, until they were defeated by the Greeks in two wars fought between 490 and 480 BCE. The Persian Empire later fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. Mithraism survived the Persian Empire’s fall and eventually became popular in Rome, especially among Roman soldiers. Shrines to Mithra often showed the god slaying a bull, a rite that symbolized the renewal of creation. This ritual supposedly bestowed immortality on Mithra’s worshippers, one reason it appealed to soldiers facing combat.

During Roman times, Mithraism ranked as a principal religion competing with Christianity, until the 300s CE. Among its several similarities to Christianity—including a resurrection, judgment day, a Satan-like figure, and guardian spirits much like angels—was a holy day celebrated in Rome on December 25. In 350 CE, Pope Julius I chose this day as the official date of the celebration of Jesus’ birth. (Other connections between Roman pagan traditions and Christmas can be found in chapter 4, What were the Bacchanalia and the Saturnalia?)*

CHAPTER FOUR

THE GREEK MIRACLE

The Myths of Greece and Rome

Having the fewest wants, I am nearest to the gods.

—SOCRATES

Prayer indeed is good, but while calling on the gods a man should himself lend a hand.

—HIPPOCRATES

Not one of them who took up in his youth with this opinion that there are no gods ever continued until old age faithful to his conviction.

—PLATO

Whatever it is, I fear Greeks even when they bring gifts.

—VIRGIL, Aeneid

That is the miracle of the Greek