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not possible). A “global skeptic” holds that no knowledge on any subject of any sort is possible.5 To take Descartes’s example, since we can never escape the possibility that the evil genius’s mischief stands between our beliefs and the world, we can never know what is actually the case. On the other hand, “local skeptics” hold that particular methods of justification fail to properly link our beliefs to truth. Most of us are skeptics regarding reading tarot cards, tea leaves, or the lines on the palms of the hand and would rightly dismiss Marco’s claims regarding the fish-bearing capacity of McElligot’s Pool. But he tells the farmer that

This MIGHT be a pool, like I’ve read of in books,

Connected to one of those underground brooks!

An underground river that starts here and flows

Right under the pasture! And then . . . well, who knows. (Pool)

So Marco’s justification for his claiming that there might be fish in McElligott’s Pool is that he has read about underground streams that connect seemingly isolated pools to other bodies of water presumably well stocked with exotic fish.

Even if we grant that Marco’s book wasn’t written by a crank, we know that even the most authoritative volumes sometimes contain errors. This is where the local skeptic risks slipping into the global skepticism camp—since even reference texts sometimes get the facts wrong—and getting the facts wrong was good enough reason to dismiss the powers of aura readers and astrologers as sources of justification. It would seem that we are not justified in trusting any source. Unless some good reason is offered for treating information gained via astrology differently from that gained via textbooks, we risk our local skepticism turning into global skepticism.

Even if Marco’s belief regarding the possibility that there are catchable fish in McElligot’s Pool was merely wishful thinking, it is testable. That is, we could seek and likely find support for or against Marco’s claim: we might simply sit down and wait to see if Marco actually does pull a fish from the water, or we could dive in to look around, or we might drain the pool completely and see what is left behind. Such measures might satisfy us, but not Marco—he is already satisfied that there may be fish in the pool; after all, by the time the farmer arrives on the scene, Marco already has his line in the water. Assuming that Marco has no desire to waste his time and energy, he must have good reason for—that is, be able to give an account of—why he believes that there might be fish in McElligot’s Pool.

What You See Is What You Get

Oh, the sea is so full of a number of fish,

If a fellow is patient, he might get his wish! (Pool)

Empiricism is arguably the most “commonsensical” of our theories of knowledge; its strength coming from the seeming match between our sense impressions and our ability to get on in the world. Basic empirical beliefs do seem to be reliable in a way that many of our other sorts of beliefs are not; what I know about the open tin of sardines before me—the smell, the glistening dark color, the can’s cool, smooth surface—is immediate in a way that my knowledge of the migratory patterns of Pacific albacore or the primary cause of the extinction of the Caribbean monk seal is not. Light waves bounce off the sardines, which in turn trigger my retinas to transmit information through the optic nerve into my brain. In the brain this information is processed, producing information about—and eventual action toward—the tin of sardines. Successful interaction with the world based upon this information justifies the idea that there is in fact a tin of sardines before me. The question for Marco then is, “Does he have good enough reason to justify his inference that there might be fish in McElligot’s Pool?”

Empiricism holds that knowledge is acquired through our sensory experience of the world or upon introspection of those experiences. An empirical belief is one that at base is the result of direct experience of the world. So when Marco sees his fishing line bobbing