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37. Ezekiel xxvii.3-11, 25-6, 32.

38. Lancel (1997: 357); Cribb et al. (1999: 225, 227).

39. Augustine, Letters, xvii.2 (Letter to Maximus Madaurus).

40. Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xviii.22.

41. Hanno, Periplus (Codex Palatinus Graecus 398, fols 55r-56r).

42. Augustine, Sermones, clxvii.4.

43. Plautus, Poenulus, 930-1028.

44. ibid., 1002-12: the translations of the Punic follow Sznycer (1967: 141-3).

45. Livy, xxviii.46.16.

46. Kaufman (1997: 115).

47. Greenfield (1985: 708); Polotsky (1971).

48. Thucydides, iv.50.

49. Daniel i.4.

50. Lemaire and Lozachmeur (1996: passim).

51. Greenfield (1985: 701, n. 2).

52. Pritchard (1969: 428): The Words of Ahiqar (trans. H. L. Ginsberg).

53. ibid.: 491: Letters of the Jews in Elephantine (trans. H. L. Ginsberg).

54. Schlumberger et al. (1958).

55. Henning(1949).

56. There is one curse-tablet of the fourth century BC, recently discovered at the Macedonian capital, Pella, which suggests that it was a variant Greek dialect, of the north-western type (Voutyras 1994).

57. Brock (1989: 19).

58. Saeki (1937).

59. Their paradoxical use of English to protect the use of German is described in Johnson-Weiner (1999).

60. Described from a Welsh learner’s viewpoint by Pam Petro (Petro 1997: 259-319).

61. Hadith of disputed authenticity. Al-Tabrizi (1985: 6006).

62. Attempted in Miquel (1968) and Planhol (1968).

63. Qur’ān, xcvi.1-2. Tantalisingly, the last word here is also often translated as ‘blood clot’. The semantic root of ’alaqin seems to be the idea of clinging.

64. Braudel (1993: 72), quoting the Arab historian Baladhori.

65. Lewis (1995: 184-6).

66. Frye (1993:99).

67. ibid.: 123.

68. ibid.: 169.

69. ibid.: 113.

70. ibid.: 169.

71. Guichard (2000: 143), quoting Jean-Pierre Molénat.

72. Corriente (1992:34).

73. Haddadou (1993: 87).

74. Ibn Khaldūn, quoted in Ellingham et al. (2001: 552); this thirteenth-century author also wrote a history of the Berbers.

75. Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimat, quoted in Armstrong (2000: 90).

76. Shaw (1976: 5).

77. Schoff (1912).

78. Hourani (1995: 92-7).

79. Dalby (1998: 591-5).

80. Clauson (2002: 50, 183).

81. ‘Abd al-Ghanī (1929).

82. Mango (1999: 496).

83. Khaulavi (1979, vol. ii: 37).

84. Braudel (1993:45).

85. ibid.: 112.

86. ibid.: 41-2.

4 Triumphs of Fertility: Egyptian and Chinese

1. trans. Lichtheim (1973: 52).

2. trans. Soothill (1910: 73-4).

3. Pritchard (1969: 415).

4. Erman (1894: 544).

5. ibid.: 106.

6. ibid.: 244.

7. Noted by Loprieno (1995: 71).

8. Moran (1992: xx-xxi).

9. Bacchylides (1961: 14-16), frag. 20B; also Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1361.

10. Greenfield (1985: 701, n. 2).

11. See Loprieno (1995).

12. Johnson (1999: 177); Dodson (2001: 90, 92).

13. According to the Cairene Arab Maqrizi (1365-1442), reported in Lipinski (1997: 29).

14. By the Translators’ Bureau in late imperial times: Ramsey (1987: 32).

15. Bazin (1948).

16. Ramsey (1987: 102-3, 139-40, 236-7). Strictly speaking Cantonese has nine tones, having added one more split.

17. Hashimoto (1986) argues a little too desperately that Chinese was effectively ‘Altaicised’ in the north, but his evidence is confined to transitory pidginised states of the language in Beijing, and a deviant contemporary dialect in Qinghai, where speakers are probably bilingual in Tibetan.

18. Norman (1988: 20).

19. Wang (1992: 11).

20. Hall (1981: 212).

21. Coedès (1968: 37). See Chapter 5, ‘Sanskrit in South-East Asia’, p. 204.

22. Wang (1992: 16).

23. Grousset (1970: 66).

24. Mote (1999: 25, 980).

25. The figures for Egypt are derived from Dollinger (2002), and for China from Barraclough (1978: 80, 127). McEvedy and Jones (1978) suggest a rather lower figure for Egypt in Roman times, 5 million. They simply dismiss the estimate in Diodorus (i.31) of 7 million for Egypt in 300 BC as ‘too high’. For China, they point out that the AD 2 census figures are actually for 11.8 million households.