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A bone industry at Choukoutien is also recognized by a Western authority on Chinese prehistory, J. S. Aigner, who wrote (1981, p. 144): “While Breuil may have been advocating tools overly, there is no question that human alteration of bones through processing activities and to a lesser extent through use (as tools) is clearly indicated.”

Unfortunately, it is not possible to completely verify these claims, because many of the older pre-World War II specimens were lost. As related by W. C. Pei (Pei Wenzhong) in a introduction to a series of photos of the bones published by Breuil in 1939: “The specimens described herein by Professor H. Breuil have been placed at the disposal of the Museum of Geological Survey of China in Nanking for exhibition purposes, but owing to the hostilities in 1937 have become lost. It is indeed most unfortunate that these valuable objects, once so carefully studied by such a leading authority in pre-history as Professor Breuil, should no longer be available to science” (Bowden 1977, p. 99). Pei, it may be noted, was not very much in favor of the bone tool industry.

9.1.9 The Fossil Bones of Sinanthropus and Signs of Cannibalism

On March 15, 1934, Davidson Black was found at his work desk, dead of a heart attack. He was clutching his reconstruction of the skull of Sinanthropus in his hand. Shortly after Black’s death, Franz Weidenreich assumed leadership of the Cenozoic Research Laboratory and wrote a comprehensive series of reports on the Peking man fossils. According to Weidenreich, the fossil remains of Sinan thropus individuals, particularly the skulls, suggested they had been the victims of cannibalism.

Most of the bones discovered at Choukoutien were cranial fragments. Weidenreich (1943, p. 7) stated: “none of the 14 skulls recognised as belonging to Sinanthropus is complete.”

Weidenreich said that the skulls had been broken after fossilization by huge masses of stone falling from the roof of the cave. He pointed out that the other animal bones found at Choukoutien were similarly crushed and fragmented. But certain aspects of the cranial fragments of Sinanthropus led Weidenreich to conclude that they had also been broken before being covered by material from collapsed portions of the cave.

Weidenreich particularly noted that the relatively complete skulls all lacked portions of the central part of the base. He observed that in modern Melanesian skulls “the same injuries occur as the effects of ceremonial cannibalism” (Weidenreich 1943, p. 186).

Besides the missing basal sections, Weidenreich also noted other signs that might possibly be attributed to the deliberate application of force. For example, some of the skulls showed impact marks of a type that “can only occur if the bone is still in a state of plasticity,” indicating that “the injuries described must have been inflicted during life or soon after death” (Weidenreich 1943, pp. 186–187).

Weidenreich (1943, p. 188) admitted that some of these injuries might have been caused by “stones falling from the roof of the cave on the individuals living in it” or “the bites of big carnivores having their dens near-by,” but pointed out that others “look like incisions made by cutting implements.”

Weidenreich (1943, p. 188) observed: “Blows inflicted on living individuals or corpses by stones falling accidentally cannot be held responsible for the destruction of the base of the skull. This fact, together with the cut-like lesions, rather points to injuries incidentally practiced by man.”

Some of the skull fragments showed depressions that possibly could be interpreted as animal bites. But Weidenreich (1943, p. 189) stated: “considering the size, form and thickness of the vault it is difficult to imagine how the animal could find adequate points at which to drive its teeth and crack the vault by seizing it between its upper and lower jaws.”

Also, according to Weidenreich (1943, p. 189), there were no cases on record that could be cited as “as examples of bites of carnivores inflicted on completely intact human skulls.”

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