Forbidden Archeology_ The Full Unabridged Edition - Michael A. Cremo [498]
Oxnard (1975b, p. 395) predicted that “more evidence of earlier forms that are more like man than australopithecines will be found.” He held that such “fossil remnants will be discovered outside Africa because . . . human or prehuman populations must have existed in other places, with migrations, and with multiple evolutionary lines.” But as we have seen in Part I, much evidence for completely humanlike forms existing at very early times has already been found, in Europe and the Americas as well as Africa. Such evidence is so extensive that talk of evolutionary lines, either single or multiple, becomes problematic.
All one can say with certainty is that various humanlike and apelike creatures seem to have coexisted for millions of years into the past. Oxnard (1975b, p. 395) approached this interpretation when he suggested: “We may have to accept that the australopithecine form (or forms) of locomotion, tool using, and tool making may be merely one (or more) unsuccessful evolutionary experiments existing in parallel with those of man.” Here the mention of tool using and making refers to Homo habilis, which Oxnard regarded as an australopithecine.
Elsewhere, Oxnard (1984, p. 1) gave this succinct statement of his principal conviction: “the conventional notion of human evolution must now be heavily modified or even rejected . . . new concepts must be explored.”
11.9 Lucy in the Sand with Diatribes
Donald Johanson studied anthropology at the University of Chicago, under F. Clark Howell. As a young graduate student, eager to learn the romantic business of hominid fossil hunting, Johanson accompanied Howell to Africa, working at the Omo site in Ethiopia.
After two seasons work at Omo, Johanson found himself in Paris. There he met Maurice Taieb, a French geologist, who told him about Hadar, a promising Plio-Pleistocene site in the Afar desert, in northeastern Ethiopia. In 1972, Johanson surveyed the region with Taieb, and after returning to the United States received a National Science Foundation grant to explore it more thoroughly. Johanson hoped to find hominid fossils.
In 1973, Johanson returned to Africa, but before going to Hadar he attended a conference of paleoanthropologists in Nairobi. There he met Richard Leakey, who had captured everyone’s attention with skull ER 1470 (Section 11.6.1), said to be 2.9 million years old. Leakey, by then quite famous, asked Johanson, still an unknown, what he was up to. Johanson replied that he would soon be hunting for hominids at Hadar in northern Ethiopia. “Do you really expect to find hominids there?” asked Leakey. Johanson replied yes, adding “older than yours.” He bet Leakey a bottle of wine he would do it. “Done!” said Leakey (Johanson and Edey 1981, pp. 134–135). Right from the start, it seems, Johanson was motivated by glamor. Finding hominids is special. It gets one headlines, interviews, and foundation grants, as well as recognition from one’s colleagues.
11.9.1 The Hadar Knee (Al 129)
By the end of his first season at Hadar, Johanson was in trouble. His National Science Foundation grant money, which was supposed to have lasted two years, was almost gone. Johanson worried he would be labeled incompetent. Furthermore, he had not found any of those glamorous hominid fossils. Johanson noted: “I had not exactly promised hominids when I put in my request for funds from the National Science Foundation, but I knew when I wrote up my grant proposal that if I did not include a strong pitch for hominids I would get no money at all; the likelihood of being sent to Ethiopia to collect pig’s teeth was remote” (Johanson and Edey 1981, p. 154).
Despite his financial problems, Johanson continued scouting for fossils. One afternoon, he found the upper portion of a tibia, a long bone between the knee and the ankle. The bone was obviously from some kind