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Stenson, Class, race and colonialism in West Malaysia: the Indian case (Queensland, 1980), pp. 141–51; ‘Draft proposals for an All-Malaya Indian Organisation (MIC) to be inaugurated at the All-Malayan Indian Conference, Kuala Lumpur 1–4 August 1946’, Thivy Papers, Perpustakaan Universiti Malaya. See also S. Arasaratnam, ‘Social and political ferment of the Malayan Indian community, 1945–55’, Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur April 1966 (Kuala Lumpur, 1966), pp. 141–55.

13. Malayan Security Service, Political Intelligence Journal [MSS/PIJ], 15 April 1947.

14. MSS/PIJ, 30 June 1946, 31 August 1947, John Dalley Papers, RHO; Ampalavanar, The Indian minority and political change in Malaya, pp. 25–32.

15. See Halimah Mohd Said and Zainab Abdul Majid, Images of the Jawi Peranakan of Penang; assimilation of the Jawi Peranakan community into the Malay society (Universiti Pendikikan Sultan Idris, 2004), pp. 53–57, 104–7; Khoo Boo Teik, Paradoxes of Mahathirism: an intellectual biography of Mahathir Mohamad (Kuala Lumpur, 1995), p. 81–8.

16. ‘British Defence Committee in South East Asia, 10th meeting’, 12 March 1947, CO537/2503, TNA.

17. MSS/PIJ, 30 September 1947; UK High Commission Ceylon to Commonwealth Relations Office, 10 April 1948; FARELF to War Office, 13 April, 28 April, 4 May, 14 May 1948; ‘Aide Memoire’, DO35/2406, TNA. Charles Gamba, The origins of trade unionism in Malaya (Singapore, 1960), p. 208.

18. Gent to Creech Jones, 11 May 1947, in A. J. Stockwell (ed), British Documents on the End of Empire: Malaya, part I (London, 1995), p. 335.

19. M. V. del Tufo, Malaya: a report on the 1947 census of population (London, 1949); Charles Hirschman, ‘The meaning and measurement of ethnicity in Malaysia: an analysis of census classifications’, Journal of Asian Studies, 46, 3 (1987), pp. 555–82.

20. Utusan Melayu, 18 November 1946.

21. Malaya Tribune, 13 November 1947.

22. Gamba, The origins of trade unionism, p. 436.

23. C. S. V. K. Moorthi, President of Selangor Estate Workers’ Trade Union, 24 March 1947, Thivy Papers.

24. R. Shlomowitz and L. Brennan, ‘Mortality and Indian labour in Malaya, 1877–1933’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 29 (1992), pp. 57–75.

25. Pierre Boulle, Sacrilege in Malaya ([1958] Kuala Lumpur, 1983), pp. 35–6, 44.

26. For a first-hand description of a planter’s work see Margaret Shennan, Out in the midday sun: the British in Malaya, 1880–1960 (London, 2000), pp. 176–81. For the quotation, Henri Falconnier, The soul of Malaya ([1931] Singapore, 1985), p. 52.

27. Gamba, The origins of trade unionism, pp. 32–3, and for general conditions on estates, pp. 252ff.

28. ‘Report: Work on the plantations’, FS13622/49, ANM.

29. ‘Special meeting of the Malayan Union Labour Advisory Board… 3 July 1947’, MU Labour/167/47, ANM.

30. We are grateful to Dr Emma Reisz for her comments. See also, J. Norman Palmer, ‘Estate workers’ health in the Federated Malay States in the 1920s’, in P. Rimmer and L. Allen (eds.), The underside of Malaysian history: pullers, prostitutes and plantation workers (Singapore, 1990), pp. 179–92.

31. Stephen Dobbs, Tuan Djek: a biography (Singapore, 2002).

32. Scorpio, ‘ITBA’, The Planter, 22, 9 (September 1947), p. 235.

33. ‘Planters in Malaya’, The Times, 9 October 1951.

34. S. K. Chettur, Malayan adventure (Mangalore, 1948), pp. 249–50.

35. Ravindra K. Jain, ‘Leadership and authority in a plantation: a case study of Indians in Malaya (c. 1900–42)’, in G. Wijeyewardene (ed.), Leadership and authority: a symposium (Singapore, 1968), pp. 163–73; P. Ramasamy, ‘Indian war memory in Malaysia’, in P. Lim Pui Huen and Diana Wong (eds.), War and memory in Malaysia and Singapore (Singapore, 2000), pp. 90–105.

36. Arasaratnam, ‘Social and political ferment of the Malayan Indian community, 1945–55’, pp. 141–55.

37. This paragraph and the next is drawn from ‘[Draft] Summary of reports regarding recent disturbances on estates in South Kedah’, in Gent to Creech Jones, 8 April 1947, CO537/2173, TNA; K. Nadaraja, ‘The Thondar