Germany (Lonely Planet, 6th Edition) - Andrea Schulte-Peevers [28]
1648 The Treaty of Westphalia formalises the independence of Switzerland, and of the Netherlands, ruled by Spain from the early 16th century when Karl V (Carlos I) was also king of Spain and its colonies.
1740–86 Brandenburg-Prussia becomes a mighty power under Friedrich the Great. Berlin advances to an ‘Athens on the Spree’ as Absolutism in Europe gives way to the Enlightenment, heralding an explosion in culture and arts.
1789–1815 The French Revolution and, from 1803, the Napoleonic Wars destroy the last vestiges of the Middle Ages in Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte takes Berlin in 1806 and pays homage at the grave of Friedrich the Great.
1806–13 The Holy Roman Empire collapses and Napoleon creates the 16-member Confederation of the Rhine after defeating Austrian and Russian troops in the Battle of Austerlitz.
1813 & 1815 Napoleon is defeated near Leipzig in 1813 and in 1815 at Waterloo. The post-Napoleon Congress of Vienna redraws the map of Europe, creating in the former Reich the German Alliance with 35 states.
1834 The German Customs Union is formed under the leadership of Prussia, making much of Germany a free-trade area and edging it closer to unification; the Union reinforces the idea of a Germany without Austria.
1848 In London The Communist Manifesto on class struggle and capitalism, by Trier-born Karl Marx and fellow countryman Friedrich Engels, is published by a group of Germans living in exile in Britain.
1848 The March Revolution breaks out mainly in the Rhineland and southwest German provinces. Nationalists and reformers call for far-reaching changes; a first parliamentary delegation meets in Frankfurt.
1866 Following a successful war against Denmark, Prussia defeats Austria in the Austro-Prussian War, and chancellor Otto von Bismarck, creates a North German Confederation that excludes Austria.
1870–71 Through brilliant diplomacy and the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck creates a unified Germany, with Prussia at its helm and Berlin as its capital. Wilhelm I, king of Prussia, becomes Kaiser Wilhelm I.
1890–91 Developing out of workers’ parties that sprang up in the mid-19th century, the Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD) adopts its present name and a program strongly influenced by Marx’ writings.
1914–18 WWI: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey go to war against Britain, France, Italy and Russia. Germany is defeated. Over eight million soldiers and many times that number of civilians die.
1915 & 1917 A German submarine sinks the RMS Lusitania, a British passenger ship carrying 1198 passengers, among them over 120 Americans. The submarine campaign by Germany draws the USA into the war.
1918–19 Sailors’ revolts spread across Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II flees to the Netherlands, and a democratic Weimar Republic is founded. Women receive suffrage and human rights are embedded in law.
1918–19 According to the ‘war guilt’ clause of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany and its allies are made financially responsible for all loss and damage suffered by its enemies, putting the new republic on an unstable footing.
Mid-1920s Amid the troubles of the Weimar Republic, Germans discover flamboyant pursuits. Cinemas attract two million visitors daily and cabaret and the arts flourish, but ideological differences increase.
1933 Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany and creates a dictatorship through the Enabling Law. Only the 94 SPD Reichstag representatives present – those not yet in prison or forced into exile – oppose the act.
1933–34 The Nazi Gleichschaltung (enforced conformity) begins, spelling the death of tolerance and pluralism. The federal states become powerless, and opposition parties and free-trade unions are banned.
1935 The Nuremberg Laws are enacted. A law for the ‘protection of German blood and honour’ forbids marriage between ‘Aryans’ and ‘non-Aryans’. Another law deprives Jews and other ‘non-Aryans’ of German nationality.
1937–45 Nazi Germany and Italy sign an agreement that allows several hundred thousand