Japan (Lonely Planet, 11th Edition) - Chris Rowthorn [13]
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THE AGE OF WARRIORS
Yoritomo did not seek to become emperor, but rather to have the new emperor confer legitimacy on him through the title of shōgun (generalissimo). This was granted in 1192. Similarly, he left many existing offices and institutions in place, though often modified, and he set up his base at his home territory of Kamakura rather than Kyoto. In theory he represented merely the military arm of the emperor’s government, but in practice he was in charge of government in the broad sense. His ‘shōgunate’ was known in Japanese as the bakufu, meaning the tent headquarters of a field general, though it was far from temporary. As an institution, it was to last almost 700 years.
The system of government now became feudal, centred on a lord-vassal system in which loyalty was a key value. It tended to be more personal and more ‘familial’ than medieval European feudalism, particularly in the extended oya-ko relationship (parent-child, in practice father-son). This ‘familial hierarchy’ was to become another enduring feature of Japan.
But ‘families’ – even actual blood families – were not always happy, and the more ruthless power-seekers would not hesitate to kill family members they saw as threats. Yoritomo himself, seemingly very suspicious by nature, killed off so many of his own family there were serious problems with the shōgunal succession upon his death in 1199 (following a fall from his horse in suspicious circumstances). One of those he had killed was his half-brother Yoshitsune, who earned an enduring place in Japanese literature and legend as the archetypical tragic hero.
Yoritomo’s widow Masako (1157–1225) was a formidable figure, arranging shōgunal regents and controlling the shōgunate for much of her remaining life. Having taken religious vows on her husband’s death, she became known as the ‘nun shōgun’ and one of the most powerful women in Japanese history. She was instrumental in ensuring that her own family, the Hōjō, replaced the Minamoto as shōguns. The Hōjō shōgunate continued to use Kamakura as the shōgunal base, and was to endure till the 1330s.
It was during their shōgunacy that the Mongols twice tried to invade, in 1274 and 1281. The Mongol empire was close to its peak at this time, under Kublai Khan (r 1260–94). After conquering Korea in 1259 he sent requests to Japan to submit to him, but these were ignored.
His expected first attack came in November 1274, allegedly with some 900 vessels carrying around 40,000 men – many of them reluctant Korean conscripts – though these figures may be exaggerated. They landed near Hakata in northwest Kyūshū and, despite spirited Japanese resistance, made progress inland. However, for unclear reasons, they presently retreated to their ships. Shortly afterwards a violent storm blew up and damaged around a third of the fleet, after which the remainder returned to Korea.
A more determined attempt was made seven years later, from China. Allegedly, Kublai ordered the construction of a huge fleet of 4400 warships to carry a massive force of 140,000 men – again, questionable figures. They landed once more in northwest Kyūshū, in August 1281, and again met spirited resistance, and had to retire to their vessels. Once again, the weather soon intervened, this time a typhoon, and half of their vessels were destroyed – many of which were actually designed for river use, without keels, and unable to withstand rough conditions. The survivors went back to China, and there was to be no further Mongol attempt to invade Japan.
It was the typhoon of 1281 in particular that led to the idea of divine intervention to save Japan, with the coining of the term shinpū or kamikaze (both meaning ‘divine wind’). Later this was used to refer to the Pacific War suicide pilots who, said to be infused with divine spirit, gave their lives in the cause of protecting Japan from invasion.