Japan (Lonely Planet, 11th Edition) - Chris Rowthorn [15]
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REUNIFICATION
One of the most successful warlords to make use of firearms was Oda Nobunaga (1534–82), from what is now Aichi prefecture. Though starting from a relatively minor power base, his skilled and ruthless generalship resulted in a series of victories over rivals. In 1568 he seized Kyoto in support of the shōgunal claim of one of the Ashikaga clan (Yoshiaki), duly installed him, but then in 1573 drove him out and made his own base at Azuchi. Though he did not take the title of shōgun himself, Nobunaga was the supreme power in the land.
Noted for his brutality, he was not a man to cross. In particular he hated Buddhist priests, whom he saw as troublesome, and tolerated Christianity as a counterbalance to them. His ego was massive, leading him to erect a temple where he could be worshipped, and to declare his birthday a national holiday. His stated aim was ‘Tenka Fubu’ – ‘A Unified Realm under Military Rule’ – and he went some way to achieving this unification by policies such as strategic redistribution of territories among the daimyō, land surveys, and standardisation of weights and measures.
In 1582 he was betrayed by one of his generals and forced to commit suicide. However, the work of continuing unification was carried on by one of his generals, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–98), a footsoldier who had risen through the ranks to become Nobunaga’s favourite. Small and simian in his features, Nobunaga had nicknamed him Saru-chan (Little Monkey), but his huge will for power belied his physical size. He disposed of potential rivals among Nobunaga’s sons, took the title of regent, continued Nobunaga’s policy of territorial redistribution and also insisted that daimyō should surrender their families to him as hostages to be kept in Kyoto – his base being at Momoyama. He also banned weapons for all classes except samurai.
Hideyoshi became increasingly paranoid, cruel and megalomaniacal in his later years. Messengers who gave him bad news would be sawn in half, and he had young members of his own family executed for suspected plotting. He also issued the first expulsion order of Christians (1587), whom he suspected of being an advance guard for an invasion. This order was not necessarily enforced, but in 1597 he crucified 26 Christians, of whom nine were Europeans. His grand scheme for power included a pan-Asian conquest, and as a first step he attempted an invasion of Korea in 1592, which failed amid much bloodshed. He tried again in 1597, but the campaign was abandoned when he died of illness in 1598.
On his deathbed Hideyoshi entrusted the safeguarding of the country, and the succession of his young son Hideyori (1593–1615, whom he had unexpectedly fathered late in life), to one of his ablest generals, Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616). However, upon Hideyoshi’s death, Ieyasu betrayed that trust. In 1600, in the Battle of Sekigahara, he defeated those who were trying to protect Hideyori, and became effectively the overlord of Japan. In 1603 his power was legitimised when the emperor conferred on him the title of shōgun. His Kantō base, the once tiny fishing village of Edo – later to be renamed Tokyo – now became the real centre of power and government in Japan.
Through these three men, by fair means or more commonly foul, the country had been reunified within three decades.
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STABILITY & SECLUSION
Having secured power for the Tokugawa, Ieyasu and his successors were determined to retain it. Their basic strategy was of a linked, twofold nature: enforce the status quo and minimise potential for challenge. Orthodoxy and strict control were key elements.
Their policies included tight control over military families in particular, such as requiring authorisation for castle-building and marriages, continuing strategic redistribution (or confiscation) of territory, and, importantly, requiring daimyō and their retainers to spend every second year in Edo, with their families kept there permanently as hostages. In addition, the shōgunate directly