Japan (Lonely Planet, 11th Edition) - Chris Rowthorn [18]
The samurai’s best-known weapon was the katana sword, though in earlier days the bow was also prominent. Arguably the world’s finest swordsmen, samurai were formidable opponents in single combat. During modernisation in the late 19th century, the government – itself comprising samurai – realised that a conscript army was more efficient as a unified fighting force, and disestablished the samurai class. However, samurai ideals such as endurance and fighting to the death were revived through propaganda prior to the Pacific War, and underlay the determination of many Japanese soldiers.
* * *
The humiliation of the shōgunate, the nation’s supposed military protector, was capitalised on by anti-shōgunal samurai in the outer domains of Satsuma (southern Kyūshū) and Chōshū (western Honshū) in particular. A movement arose to ‘revere the emperor and expel the barbarians’ (sonnō jōi). However, after unsuccessful skirmishing with the Western powers, the reformers realised that expelling the barbarians was not feasible, but restoring the emperor was. Their coup, known as the Meiji (Enlightened Rule) Restoration, was put into effect in late 1867 to early 1868, and the new teenage emperor Mutsuhito (1852–1912, later to be known as Meiji) found himself ‘restored’, following the convenient death of his stubborn father Kōmei (1831–67). After some initial resistance, the last shōgun, Yoshinobu (1837–1913), retired to Shizuoka to live out his numerous remaining years peacefully. The shōgunal base at Edo became the new imperial base, and was renamed Tokyo (Eastern Capital).
Mutsuhito did as he was told by those who had restored him, though they would claim that everything was done on his behalf and with his sanction. Basically, he was the classic legitimiser. His restorers – driven by both personal ambition and genuine concern for the nation – were largely leading Satsuma/Chōshū samurai in their early 30s. The most prominent of them was Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), who was to become prime minister on no fewer than four occasions. Fortunately for Japan, they proved a very capable oligarchy.
Japan was also fortunate in that the Western powers were distracted by richer and easier pickings in China and elsewhere and did not seriously seek to occupy or colonise Japan, though Perry does seem to have entertained such thoughts at one stage. Nevertheless, the fear of colonisation made the oligarchs act with great urgency. Far from being colonised, they themselves wanted to be colonisers, and make Japan a major power.
Under the banner of fukoku kyōhei (rich country, strong army), the young men who now controlled Japan decided on Westernisation as the best strategy – again showing the apparent Japanese preference for learning from a powerful potential foe. In fact, as another slogan – oitsuke, oikose (catch up, overtake) – suggests, they even wanted to outdo their models. Missions were sent overseas to observe a whole range of Western institutions and practices, and Western specialists were brought to Japan to advise in areas from banking to transport to mining.
In the coming decades Japan was to Westernise quite substantially, not just in material terms such as telegraphs and railways and clothing, but also, based on selected models, in the establishment of a modern banking system and economy, a legal code, a constitution and Diet, elections and political parties, and a conscript army.
* * *
The rickshaw was not developed until 1869, following the lifting of the Tokugawa ban on wheeled transport.
* * *
* * *
The disorienting collapse of the regimented Tokugawa world produced a form of mass hysteria called Ee Ja Nai Ka (Who Cares?), with traumatised people dancing naked and giving away possessions.
* * *
Existing institutions and practices were disestablished where necessary. Daimyō were ‘persuaded’ to give their domainal land to the government in return for governorships or similar compensation,