Knocking on Heaven's Door - Lisa Randall [210]
16. Stillman, Drake. Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo (Doubleday Anchor Books, 1957) p. 181.
17. Ibid., pp. 179–180.
18. Ibid., p. 186.
19. Galileo, 1632. Science & Religion: Opposing Viewpoints, ed. Janelle Rohr (Greenhaven Press, 1988), p. 21.
20. See, for exmple, Gopnik, Alison. The Philosophical Baby (Picador, 2010).
21. Matthew 7:7–8.
22. Blackwell, Richard J. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible (University of Notre Dame Press, 1991).
23. Quoted in Gerald Holton, “Johannes Kepler’s Universe: Its Physics and Metaphysics,” American Journal of Physics 24 (May 1956): 340–351.
24. Calvin, John. Institutes of Christian Religion, trans. by F. L. Battles in A Reformation Reader, Denis R. Janz, ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999).
25. For example, in ancient Greece, stadia didn’t have a fixed length since they were based on different body part lengths in different regions and in different times.
26. There is, of course, an electromagnetic field, but there is virtually no actual matter.
27. Momentum is a quantity that is approximated by the product of mass and velocity at small speeds but is equal to the energy divided by the speed of light for objects moving at relativistic velocities.
28. Gamow, George. One, Two, Three… Infinity: Facts and Speculations of Science (Viking Adult, September 1947).
29. Note that this figure corresponds to a more precise version of unification than was true for the original Georgi-Glashow theory, in which the lines almost converged, but didn’t quite meet. This imperfect unification was demonstrated only later on, with better measurements of the forces’ interaction strengths.
30. Although it comes close, we now know that unification won’t occur within the Standard Model. However, unification can happen in modifications of the Standard Model, such as the supersymmetric models considered in Chapter 17.
31. Feynman, Richard. The QED Lecture at University of Auckland (New Zealand, 1979). See also: Richard Feynman Lectures, Proving the Obviously Untrue.
32. Quoted, for example, in Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1986).
33. Particle physicists measure energy in units of electronvolts and those are the units I will use throughout. An electronvolt (eV) is the energy acquired by a free electron when accelerated through an electric potential difference of one volt. More commonly, I will refer to the units GeV, which is a billion electron-volts, and a TeV, which is a trillion electronvolts.
34. Ironically, the plot of Dan Brown’s Angels and Demons centers on antimatter, whereas the LHC is the first CERN collider for which the initial states are purely matter.
35. Overbye, Dennis. “Collider Sets Record and Europe Takes U. S. Lead.” New York Times, December 9, 2009.
36. In 1997, the European Physical Society recognized Robert Brout, François Englert, and Peter Higgs for their achievement, and the three were once again awarded in 2004 with the Wolf Prize in Physics. François Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble all received the J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics from the American Physical Society in 2010. I will refer only to Higgs and Peter Higgs throughout the text, as my focus is the physical mechanism and not the personalities. Of course if the Higgs is discovered, only three at most will receive a Nobel Prize and priority issues will be important. For an overview of the situation, see, for example, Luis Álvarez-Gaumé and John Ellis, “Eyes on a Prize Particle,” Nature Physics 7 (January 2011).
37. It is ambiguous whether the Standard Model should also include the very heavy right-handed neutrinos that are likely to exist and play a role in neutrino masses.
38. Its original purpose was to accelerate protons and antiprotons, but currently only protons, in its current use as the SPS accelerator at the LHC.
39. Physical Review D, 035009 (2008).
40. http://lsag.web.cern.ch/lsag/LSAG-Report.pdf.
41. See, for example, Taibbi, Matt. “The Big Takeover: How Wall