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existence at this period. It is quite possible that it was written later, whereas Genesis 2-4, the J epic was certainly in existence and may have served as the only creation story. This clarifies that the Hebrew God is not merely Spenta Mainyu, the good god of Zoroastrianism, for instance, who is inferior to Ahura Mazda. The whole passage makes most sense as a polemic against the newly arriving Zoroastrianism. Does this suggest a time when Zoroastrianism was rising in Persia but before it became a state supported religion? Yes, that would be the best bet but, as with many things chronological in the study of Zoroastrianism, we cannot be sure from these few clues alone.

The Sociology of the Return from Exile

A FASCINATING summary of sociological models for exile and return are to be found in Daniel L. Smith’s, The Religion of the Landless.42 We should particularly pay attention to the development of a concept of ethnicity in diaspora and its subsequent utility for this small, separate people in the world empire. Both the exile and the return to the land of Israel can in some ways be compared to the forced marches of a number of other peoples in world history, though the return of the Israelites was voluntary.

The need for people to return to devastated Israel was shortly to bring new prophets to the fore, prophets whom we know only because their prophecies have been appended to the book of Isaiah, perhaps merely to give it a happier ending. The very last chapter of Isaiah provides us with the beginnings of an apocalypse which will right a world where infidels appear to have gotten the upper-hand forever. The remnant of God did, however, have a task. They would return to the land of Israel and worship God there, even before the Temple was reconstructed, because He did not need a Temple: “The heaven is His throne; the earth his footstool” (Isa 66:1). And they would have the “Glory of the LORD” at their head, a warrior God who, like Ba’al, would protect them. The people would conceive and bring forth a new child, a new commonwealth. It would be a miracle, born in a day, testifying to the power and the “Glory of the LORD.”

The exiled in Israel would return and even some of the nations would arrive as well. Even the old priesthood would be constituted from those who came back, a new unity from the old remnants. Those who ate swine and otherwise violated the ancient commandments would die terrible deaths for the “Glory of the LORD” himself would even arrive there with his heavenly hosts, all in their chariots. By such events God’s miracles would be made manifest to the entire world. He would even make a new heaven and new earth so that the covenant could be reconstituted, as they were the witnesses to the breaking of the previous ones. The world would come to worship YHWH in Jerusalem, and the corpses of the dead would testify to the evil that overcomes those who disobey Him. His faithful remnant, Israel, however, would see His Temple, even though it could not and did not need to contain His Glory. All it needed was patience. Those who were faithful would see even Israelite bones flourish. These images became extremely important when the resurrection of the dead was prophesied in Daniel.

Thus says the LORD:

“Heaven is my throne

and the earth is my footstool;

what is the house which you would build for me,

and what is the place of my rest?

• • •

For thus says the LORD:

“Behold, I will extend prosperity to her like a river,

and the wealth of the nations

like an overflowing stream;

and you shall suck, you shall be carried upon her hip,

and dandled upon her knees.

As one whom his mother comforts,

so I will comfort you;

you shall be comforted in Jerusalem.

You shall see, and your heart shall rejoice;

your bones shall flourish like the grass;

and it shall be known that the hand of the LORD

is with his servants,

and his indignation is against his enemies.

“For behold, the LORD will come in fire,

and his chariots like the stormwind,

to render his anger in fury,

and his rebuke with flames of fire.

For by fire