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about the evolution of drug-resistant bacteria as well as outbreaks of salmonella and E coli poisoning. The high concentration of animals in factory farms leads to accumulations of manure that can’t be absorbed by the land; the waste piles up, giving off ammonia and other gases. It leaches into the water table and washes into rivers and streams, creating aquatic dead zones. Because of their poor energy efficiency, high pollution output, abuse of animals, and inability to ensure food safety, CAFOs are generally regarded as outmoded.

CONVENTIONAL FARMING

Though it sounds old-fashioned, this term actually refers to today’s standard agricultural methods, including chemical and synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, large tracts of land devoted to a single crop, and CAFOs, where animals are crowded into close quarters. The term is defined in contrast to more eco-friendly farming methods, such as organic, biodynamic, or pasture raised.

FAIR TRADE

The fair trade system was created to help disadvantaged farmers in developing countries who grow products such as bananas, coffee, tea, sugar, vanilla, rice, wine, and chocolate for export to developed countries. The FT symbol signifies that the product meets the following criteria: the farmers receive a fair price for the product; workers labor under safe conditions, meaning no exposure to toxic pesticides; no child labor is used; producers sell directly to importers, avoiding middlemen; and environmentally sustainable farming methods are used. Certified FT producers are inspected and must meet rigorous guidelines in order to participate in the system.

FREE RANGE

Usually used in reference to poultry, this label means that the animal was able to walk around freely. But as with “cage free,” there is no standard definition of the term, and its use is unregulated, so this label may not mean a great deal.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED

When referring to a product like cotton, corn, or rice, this term means that the genetic structure of the plant has been altered by insertion of a gene from another plant or even an animal. The goal of gene altering is to give a plant characteristics that it doesn’t naturally have, such as the ability to resist pests, endure drought, or, in the case of the Flavr Savr tomato—the first genetically modified (GM) food to be granted a license for human consumption—the ability to last longer on a store shelf than a normal tomato. The practice is highly controversial because the long-term effects of growing and eating GM foods have not been tested. A well-known study in 1999 showed that pollen from GM corn killed monarch butterflies. When GM crops are planted, their seeds blow into nearby farms and enter non-GM crops, so it’s hard for nearby farmers to make sure the crops they grow are “clean.” Incredibly, producers aren’t required to label genetically modified foods in the United States, so consumers don’t know which products have been modified. Unlike the United States, the European Union, Japan, and Australia all require labels on GM foods.

GRASS FED

This food label refers to meat from animals that roam on pasturelands. Grass is the natural diet of ruminant animals, although in the modern feedlot they are fed primarily on genetically modified grain and soy, along with other cheap fillers including garbage and chicken waste. Grass-fed meat costs more but contains more vitamins and less fat, and is better for animals and the environment. Pasture-raised animals release less methane into the air and fertilize the ground evenly with manure, and their grazing has been shown to increase the amount and hardiness of native plants. Grass feeding serves a dual purpose: improving land quality and restoring wildlife habitat, while producing high-quality meat.

HEIRLOOM

Heirlooms are garden plants passed down through generations, selected for their taste, beauty, and ability to thrive. Some people define heirlooms as seeds older than fifty years. Heirlooms naturally develop resistance to the pests and diseases with which they evolve, and each variety is genetically unique.