Persuasive Advertising - J. Scott Armstrong [109]
Kaikati’s (1987) review of nine studies found mixed results for the use of celebrities. For example, two small-scale experiments found that the use of celebrities in ads enhanced the taste of wine. Two of three non-experimental studies showed negative results for ads with celebrities. In addition, Kaikati referred to Gallup & Robinson studies showing that TV commercials without celebrities successfully communicated 2.4 selling points to viewers, whereas those with celebrities communicated only 1.4 selling points (but I was unable to find the original source for this).
In a lab experiment, identical messages were delivered by either a well-known actress or an unknown professional announcer. Subjects who received the celebrity ads focused on the celebrity, whereas the other subjects focused on the brand (Mehta 1994).
Non-experimental evidence: TV commercials in which celebrities played principal characters were lower than average for persuasion (Stewart and Furse 1986). Commercials with celebrities were 21 percent lower in product-preference changes than the average for all commercials in their sample (Ogilvy and Raphaelson 1982). Commercials with celebrity endorsers were no more persuasive than the typical ad in another sample (Laskey et al. 1994).
6.6.2. Consider celebrity endorsements for gaining attention
The primary advantage of using celebrities in ads is to attract attention. Attention is needed especially for little-known products and services, or where the seller is not well known. For example, many years ago I saw a print ad asking for donations to the City Team Rescue Mission in Philadelphia. The ad requested that money be sent to a post office box. I was skeptical because I had never heard of the organization. However, the ad contained an appeal by Reggie White, who was a Philadelphia Eagles football player, a minister, and a leading citizen in Philadelphia. He gave credibility to the appeal.
The use of celebrities carries risks for the advertiser. In 1998, Dennis Rodman was second in name recognition to his teammate, Michael Jordan. However, Rodman engaged in inappropriate behavior which was widely reported by the press, so advertisers stopped using him. In 2009, there was the Tiger Woods incident (it was alleged that knowledge of his affairs led to his wife attacking him and his car), and some advertisers decided to not to use him any longer.
Provide an escape clause should the celebrity do anything that reflects poorly on the brand. Celebrities might have run-ins with the law. They might run into difficulties, such as James Garner’s heart surgery when he was a spokesperson for the beef industry. They may make inappropriate statements, such as movie star Macaulay Culkin allegedly stating about a product he was endorsing: “I’m not crazy about the stuff, but money is money.”
Celebrities are also exposed to risks when they endorse products. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission said that it would hold celebrities personally responsible for false claims they make. Advertisers should inform celebrities of these risks. Kertz and Ohanian (1992) reviewed relevant law cases and advised that claims of product performance should be substantiated by all parties making claims.
The use of celebrities also poses another risk. A consumer poll found that 85 percent of the respondents “avoid buying products associated with well-known people because they feel that celebrity salaries add significantly to the cost of items” (Cooper 1984). New Balance shoes tries to capitalize on this belief. Since their beginning in 1972, they have advertised that their sneakers are “Endorsed by no one™.” From all indications, they seem to be doing well.
Advertisers can avoid some problems by using dead celebrities. Apple Computers used Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, Pablo Picasso, and Jackie Robinson in its “Think different™” campaign. In 2000, a South African ad for Dunlop Tires used a digitally aged James Dean (the film star who died in 1955).
Before deciding to use a celebrity, make a formal estimate