Persuasive Advertising - J. Scott Armstrong [129]
Evidence on the effects of arguments
One study described six experiments on the effects of arguments, and all supported the conclusion that customers make evaluations by averaging the quality of the arguments. It then presented two lab experiments by giving information about types of diapers and infant car seats to expectant parents (thus, high involvement came into play). Judgments were more favorable when these product descriptions avoided weak arguments (Troutman and Shanteau 1976).
Further support was provided in six lab experiments using choices related to pairs of automobiles, cameras, bicycles, and stores. When subjects lacked the ability, opportunity, or motivation to understand the information, they were more likely to be persuaded by ads with many favorable arguments than by those with few favorable arguments (Alba and Marmorstein 1987).
In another lab experiment, students were asked to listen to audiotapes offering arguments on whether students should be required to take a comprehensive exam in order to graduate. Under high involvement (where the exam would affect the students), the addition of weak arguments into an otherwise strong message led to counter-arguing, unfavorable thoughts, and an overall loss in persuasiveness (Friedrich et al. 1996).
7.1.2. Use positive arguments
The human intellect ... is more moved and excited by affirmatives than by negatives.
Francis Bacon, 1621
As early as the 1890s, advertising experts praised advertisers who highlighted the pleasures of using products and avoided talking negatively. In 1921, Harry Tipper, an advertising expert, advised against Postum’s then-current slogan, “Don’t drink coffee,” and suggested the more positive approach, “Drink Postum.” Hopkins (1923) advocated the use of positive arguments. He said: “In advertising a dentifrice, show pretty teeth, not bad teeth.”
Many issues can be put in a positive light. Consider the Smith family. Its members hired a writer to write their family history. But they had a concern. While their ancestors included famous scientists, artists, and industrialists, it also included great-uncle George, the black sheep, who was executed in the electric chair. The writer assured the Smiths that he would handle that section of the history with tact. When the book appeared, the family turned to the part about Uncle George and read: “George Smith occupied a chair of applied electronics at an important government institution and was attached to his position by the strongest of ties. His premature death came as a shock.”
In the 1960s, unlike other automobile manufacturers, Volkswagen did not improve its designs each year. They treated this “negative” as an advantage in its “It doesn’t go in one year and out the other” campaign.
Positive arguments offer many possibilities. For example, it would not be politically acceptable to charge obese people more to fly on airplanes. However, the public might positively view a policy whereby airline discounts were given to passengers based on how much their weight requirements (i.e., passenger plus luggage) fell below a specified maximum, such as 400 pounds per seat.
Sometimes this principle is obvious. In a New Yorker cartoon, a restaurant posted a sign that said “20% penalty for dinners ordered after 7:00 PM.” This would obviously annoy people. Instead, restaurants advertise an “early bird” special with savings prior to 7:00 pm. Other times it is not obvious. For example, students are often penalized for turning work in late. Why not offer extra points for work turned in early? I tried this and it simplified my life as a professor.
This principle is widely accepted today. For example, our WAPB analysis of the 480 tested print ads from leading advertisers showed that 85 percent used positive arguments.
Evidence on the effects of positive arguments
Our analysis of quasi-experimental data supports the use of positive arguments:
Print ads with positive arguments had better recall. Our WAPB