Persuasive Advertising - J. Scott Armstrong [197]
Herbert A. Simon, 1961
The phrasing of a problem will narrow the search for solutions. To get around this, write the problem statement in alternative ways and ask others to independently do the same. A problem phrased as, “How can we convince people to stop smoking?” will generate one set of solutions (e.g., tell smokers about the dangers of smoking). Phrasing the problem as, “What could be done to get people to stop smoking?” broadens the issue and generates other possibilities such as persuading nonsmokers to ask smokers not to smoke, or persuading legislatures to pass laws against smoking in public places. In effect, I am advocating “problem-storming.”
Brainstorming, brainwriting, and electronic brainwriting
The presence of other people typically hampers creativity. Some members of a group might be reluctant to contribute because others might pass judgment on their ideas. In 1940, Alex Osborn, the “O” at the BBD&O advertising agency, addressed these issues using a procedure called “brainstorming,” a structured method of generating ideas by reducing evaluation. Evaluations of the ideas should occur at a later time using different procedures, and perhaps even different people.
To use brainstorming, you must first gain agreement from the group to try the technique for a fixed time period. Do not brainstorm for long periods. Ten minutes is usually sufficient for a given problem.
To make brainstorming work, you need a trained “facilitator,” who focuses only on the group process. Without a facilitator, groups are unable to adhere to the brainstorming process, as an experiment by Offner, Kramer and Winter (1996) showed. The facilitator:
• does not introduce ideas, but concentrates only on helping the group follow the rules
• records ideas
• encourages a large number of ideas
• reminds the group not to evaluate ideas, either favorably or unfavorably
• encourages unusual ideas.
Research on brainstorming has shown that facilitators and participants get better at brainstorming as they gain experience with this formal process.
To ensure that ideas are not lost, one person should be appointed to act solely as a recorder. The recording process should not be visible, however. When recording is done publicly, participants slow down to wait for the recorder to post the ideas, thus interrupting the flow of ideas (Offner et al. 1996).
Research on brainstorming has been conducted since the late 1950s. The findings show that when a brainstorming session is run with facilitators who follow the above guidelines, it generates many more creative ideas than does a traditional meeting with the same number of person-hours. While the procedure requires training and the use of at least one facilitator, the benefits, in terms of useful ideas, can be enormous.
The original brainstorming procedure focused on avoiding negative feedback. Further research led to the conclusion that positive feedback was also harmful (e.g., “That’s a great idea”). In fact, it is even more damaging than negative feedback because it leads groups to conclude that their job is finished (Connolly, Jessup, and Valacich 1990).
Interestingly, few firms actually use brainstorming as described here and as tested in research studies. My career has led to experience with many organizations over nearly half a century, yet I have never been in a brainstorming group run by anyone in these organizations. Many people, my students for example, tell me that they have been involved in brainstorming sessions; however, when I ask them to describe the process, it is clear that they are describing traditional meetings. David Kelly, founder of IDEO, a well-respected consulting company that helps clients develop new products, also found that companies seldom use brainstorming. Part of the success of IDEO is because it helps companies to properly use brainstorming (Sutton and Hargadon 1996).
Brainstorming reduces group pressures, but it does not eliminate them. An even more effective way to reduce pressure is to use “brainwriting.” In brainwriting,