Persuasive Advertising - J. Scott Armstrong [88]
The spokesperson should be trustworthy and credible in the opinion of those in the target market, especially when there is a need to overcome resistance to change. For example, if the advertisement is seeking a substantial change in behavior, a trustworthy source is especially effective.
In 1995, the Massachusetts Department of Health used Janet Sackman for an anti-smoking ad. In 1959, at age 17, she had been the Lucky Strike Girl in a high-profile advertising campaign for cigarettes. Because of her job, she began to smoke. Thirty-four years later, her voice box was removed because of cancer. This ad was apparently successful in persuading some people to reduce smoking.
Evidence on the effects of credibility and trust
Six experiments showed that high credibility is important when an advertisement calls for a substantial change in behavior. In contrast, there was little need for high credibility when an ad supports current beliefs (O’Keefe 2002a, pp. 194–5).
Baby-faced spokespersons engender a feeling of trust. However, they are perceived as less knowledgeable, as was shown in a study of TV commercials (Brownlow and Zebowitz 1990).
5.6.4. Use a physically attractive spokesperson for products that enhance beauty
Personal beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of reference.
Aristotle
Advertisers with strong arguments should be cautious in the use of beauty because it is likely to distract attention from strong arguments. Buyers should be cautious when beauty is used for high-involvement purchases.
Evidence on physical attractiveness
An analysis of 53 journal articles and 23 dissertations obtained substantial support that beauty aids persuasion in areas related to “social competence,” somewhat so for “intellectual competence,” and not at all for “integrity and concern for others” (Eagly et al. 1991).
The bias towards beauty shows up early in life. Studies of the reactions of infants found that the infants were more involved with attractive strangers and attractive dolls than with unattractive ones (Langlois, Roggman, and Reiser-Danner 1990).
5.7. Forewarning
Forewarned is forearmed.
Anonymous
There are two types of forewarning. One type deals with the intent to persuade (“I have a deal you can’t refuse!”); the other addresses message content (“Wouldn’t you rather have a Buick?”). The former can lead to resistance during the receipt of the message. The latter leads customers to develop counter-arguments prior to hearing or reading the arguments.
Bose forewarned customers about its intent to persuade in a print ad for its computer music monitor by using this heading: “Beware this is the manufacturer talking.” Was that wise?
5.7.1. Forewarn about persuasion attempts for low-involvement goods
Forewarning is persuasive for low-involvement products, especially those sold by credible sources. It poses a problem for high-involvement products as it invites counter-arguments. In the above example, Bose meets the condition of being a credible source, but it seems likely to lead to counter-arguments during the receipt of the message.
Evidence on the effects of forewarning
Wood and Quinn (2003) reviewed 35 papers with 46 separate studies on forewarning. In some, the forewarning indicated that there would be an attempt to persuade; in others, the forewarning specified only the topic.
For high-involvement decisions, warnings generated resistance—especially if there was a time delay between the warning and the actual message. This would argue against the using the Bose ad mentioned above. However, this finding was based on only three experiments.
For low-involvement goods, Wood and Quinn found that forewarnings generated agreement before the message was delivered. The explanation was that the warning threatens people’s self-images and makes them feel vulnerable. Therefore, they shifted their attitude prior to seeing the argument to minimize its apparent effect, as if they are saying “I already knew that.”
Wood and Quinn also found that persuasion was higher when