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in Confucian doctrine, and during the colonial era Vietnamese intellectuals turned to Buddhism in search of a national identity. Since then the Buddhist community has been a focus of dissent, not least in the 1960s when images of self-immolating Buddhist monks focused world attention on the excesses of South Vietnam’s Catholic President Diem. At the time, protesting Buddhists were accused of being pro-Communist, although their standpoint was essentially neutral. In the event they experienced even greater repression after reunification when pagodas were closed, and monks and nuns were sent to re-education camps.

The situation has eased considerably in recent years, and pagodas affiliated to the officially recognized Vietnam Buddhist Sangha (VBS) have been able to resume their social and educational programmes to a certain extent. Many pagodas, now bustling with life again, have been renovated after years of neglect. Nevertheless, the government continues to exert control over the VBS, and Buddhist leaders have persisted in their denunciations of the regime, campaigning for human rights and causing the government acute embarrassment as it seeks international approval. In particular, the authorities refuse to recognize the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV), the main pre-1975 Buddhist organization. According to international human rights organizations, its leaders are regularly placed under “house arrest” with no official charges against them.

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Religion and beliefs | Buddhism | The history of Buddhism in Vietnam |

The Buddhist pagoda

The Vietnamese word chua, translated as “pagoda”, is an exclusively Buddhist term, whereas a temple (den) may be Taoist, Confucian or house a guardian spirit. Pagoda architecture reached a pinnacle during the Ly and Tran dynasties, but thanks to Chinese invasions and local, anti-Buddhist movements few examples remain. A majority of those still in existence are eighteenth- or nineteenth-century constructions, though many retain features of earlier designs. Generally, pagoda layout is either an inverse T or three parallel lines of single-storeyed pavilions. The first hall is reserved for public worship, while those beyond, on slightly raised platforms, contain the prayer table and principal altar. Other typical elements are a bell tower, either integral to the building or standing apart, and a walled courtyard containing ponds, stone stelae and, particularly in Mahayana pagodas, the white figure of Quan Am symbolizing charity and compassion.

The most interesting feature inside the pagoda is often the statuary. Rows of Buddhas sit or stand on the main altar, where the Buddhist trinity occupies the highest level: A Di Da or Amitabha, the Historical Buddha; Thich Ca Mau Ni or Sakyamuni, born Siddhartha Gautama, the Present Buddha; and Di Lac, or Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Lower ranks comprise the same characters in a variety of forms accompanied by bodhisattvas: look out for pot-bellied Maitreya as the laughing carefree Buddha who grants wishes; the omnipotent Avalokitesvara of a “thousand” arms and eyes; and the Nine Dragon Buddha (Tuong Cuu Long). This latter is a small statue, found more often in northern Vietnam, of Sakyamuni encircled by dragons, standing with one hand pointing to the sky and the other to the earth. According to legend, nine dragons descended from the sky to bathe the newborn Buddha, after which he took seven steps forward and proclaimed, “on earth and in the sky, I alone am the highest.”

Two unmistakable figures residing in all pagodas are the giant guardians of Buddhist law: white-faced “Mister Charitable” (Ong Thien), holding a pearl, and red-faced “Mister Wicked” (Ong Ac). Ong Thien sees everything, both the good and the bad, while Ong Ac dispenses justice. From an artistic point of view, some of the most fascinating statues are the lifelike representations of arhats, ascetic Buddhist saints; the best examples are found in northern pagodas, where each figure is portrayed in a disturbingly realistic style. Finally, Mahayana pagodas will undoubtedly