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influence in its spoken parts, with short scenes and relatively elaborate sets. The action is a tangle of historical drama (such as The Tale of Kieu) and racy themes from the street (murder, drug deals, incest, theft and revenge). Its music is a similar hodgepodge: eighteenth-century chamber music played on amplified traditional instruments for the set pieces; electric guitar, keyboards and drums during the scene changes. Cai Luong’s constant borrowing from contemporary culture – from language and plots to the incorporation of hit songs – has enabled it to keep pace with Vietnam’s social changes. Around thirty professional Cai Luong troupes are currently performing, of which the best known are the National Cai Luong Theatre in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City’s Tran Huu Trang Cai Luong Theatre.

The origin of water-puppetry (mua roi nuoc) is obscure, beyond that it developed in the flooded rice paddies of the Red River Delta and usually took place in spring when there was less farm work to be done. The earliest record is a stele in Ha Nam Province dated 1121 AD, suggesting that by this date water-puppetry was already a regular feature at the royal court.

The art of water-puppetry was traditionally a jealously guarded secret handed down from father to son; women were not permitted to learn the techniques in case they revealed them to their husbands’ families. This contributed to its decline until the art seemed in danger of dying out altogether. Happily, a French organization, the Maison des Cultures du Monde, intervened and, since 1984, with newly carved puppets, a revamped programme and more elaborate staging, Vietnam’s water-puppet troupes have played various international capitals to great acclaim – and can be seen daily in Hanoi (See "Traditional Vietnamese entertainment"), Ho Chi Minh City (See "The History Museum") and Haiphong (See "Eating, drinking and entertainment"). Where before gongs and drums alone were used for scene-setting and building atmosphere, today’s national troupes often maintain a larger ensemble, similar to Hat Cheo, including zithers and flutes. The songs are also borrowed from the Cheo repertoire, particularly declamatory styles and popular folk tunes, and the show often includes a short recital of traditional music before the puppets emerge to create their own unique illusion.

Music and theatre | The traditional strand |

Music, dance and song

One of Vietnam’s oldest song traditions is that of Quan Ho, or “call-and-response singing”, a form which thrives in the Red River Delta, particularly Ha Bac Province, and has parallels among the north’s ethnic minorities. These unaccompanied songs are usually heard in spring, performed by young men and women bandying improvised lyrics back and forth. Quan Ho traditionally played a part in the courtship ritual and performers are applauded for their skill in complimenting or teasing their partner, earning delighted approval as the exchange becomes increasingly bawdy.

Found in north and central Vietnam, Hat Chau Van is a form of ancient, sacred ritual music used to invoke the spirits during trance possession ceremonies. Statues of a pantheon of goddesses are placed in shrines to the Mother Goddess, Thanh Mau, found in both Buddhist pagodas and village temples. Throughout the performance of hypnotically rhythmic music (the performers may be one or many, male or female) a medium enters a trance state and is possessed by a chosen deity. Because of the anti-religious stance of the Vietnamese government until 1986, the style was practised in secret, though some pieces were adapted for inclusion in state-sponsored Cheo theatre. Chau Van is currently being revived by older practitioners in its original religious setting, promoted by a class of nouveaux riches keen for the goddesses to intercede and protect their business interests.

Although the song tradition known as Ca Tru, or Hat A Dao, dates back centuries, it became all the rage in the fifteenth century when the Vietnamese regained their independence from China. According to legend, a beautiful young songstress,