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Employment of a low-income workforce without health and sick-leave benefits

Centralized production of prepared foods

Dietary preferences

Emphasis on raw, partially cooked foods Use of prepared convenience foods Use of takeout foods, restaurant leftovers Demand for imported, year-round produce

Demographics

Increased population of older and chronically ill people more vulnerable to infection

Increased use of medications that suppress immune function

Concentrating Production

The most important trends favoring the growth and dispersion of microbial pathogens relate to methods of production, particularly the production of food animals. As a consequence of advances in technology, the globalization of food marketing, and economic imperatives, small farms raising multiple species of animals and crops have been replaced by incomprehensibly large “factory” systems. In the early 1970s, for example, many thousands of small farmers raised chickens; these were supplied by numerous feed mills and processed in thousands of local plants throughout the country. Today, just a few gigantic corporations control every aspect of chicken production, from egg to grocery store.

One measure of industry concentration is the proportion of an industry controlled by its four leading firms. The proportion of chickens slaughtered by the top four chicken-processing corporations increased from 18% in 1972 to 49% in 1998. Similarly, the top four hog-slaughtering firms controlled 32% of all hogs processed in 1972, but 43% in 1992, and the top four cattle-slaughtering firms increased their share from 30% in 1972 to 79% by 1998. Equivalent trends are seen in the dairy industry.19 As a further example of such consolidation, Tyson Foods, “the world’s largest fully integrated producer, processor and marketer of chicken and chicken-based convenience foods,” merged with IBP, “the world’s largest supplier of premium fresh beef and pork products,” to create the world’s largest provider of animal protein. This 2001 merger resulted in a company that controls about 28% of the world’s beef, 25% of the chicken, and 18% of the pork.20

The most obvious effect of industry consolidation is to bring unimaginably large numbers of animals (or their meat) in close contact during production, transportation, slaughter, and processing. Raising large populations of chickens or cattle in one location means dealing with more manure than can possibly be contained or converted to fertilizer. Such practices have profound effects on the environment as well as on human health.21 When farmers raise just a few animals, they can compost the waste, a process that usually generates enough heat to kill bacteria. In addition to the environmental problems brought on by excessive manure, the use of raw—rather than composted—waste to fertilize fields and orchards brings pathogenic bacteria into contact with grains, vegetables, and fruits not usually contaminated with such organisms.22

The concentration of cattle production means that animals are transported across long distances, crowded together in railroad cars. Unlike poultry, beef cattle are shipped from one location to another at various growth stages—between the U.S. and Mexico, for example—increasing the opportunity for bacteria to spread. Large holding pens also expose animals to common sources of food and water, meaning that a foodborne or waterborne infection can quickly reach large numbers of animals. Animals from many locations arrive at the slaughterhouse together and remain in close contact until killed; their carcasses remain in close contact until processed. Contact alone favors the spread of pathogens.

When it comes to processing, the implications of concentrated production are quite startling. Think, for a moment, about ground beef. To grind beef for hamburger, processors take beef from many sources—even from different states—mix it together and grind it. Packers regrind it, and grocers sometimes regrind it again. The result? Health officials estimate that just one