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in the mountains at an elevation of about 1000m and occur in eight Thai provinces: Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son, Phayao, Tak, Kamphaeng Phet, Sukhothai and Lampang. The women wear long multicoloured tunics over trousers and sometimes black turbans with tassels. Men wear baggy green or blue pants pegged in at the ankles. Patrilineal clans have pan-tribal jurisdiction, which makes the Lisu unique among hill-tribe groups (most of which have power centred with either a shaman or a village headman). Homes are built on the ground and consist mostly of bamboo and thatched grass. Older homes – today quite rare – may be made from mud brick or mud-and-bamboo thatch.

MIEN (YAO)

Population: 45,500

Origin: central China

Present locations: Thailand, south China, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam

Economy: dry rice, corn

Belief system: animism with ancestor worship and Taoism

Cultural characteristics: The Mien are highly skilled at crafts such as embroidery and silversmithing. They settle near mountain springs at between 1000m and 1200m with a concentration in Nan, Phayao and Chiang Rai provinces and a few communities in Chiang Mai, Lampang and Sukhothai. Migration into Thailand increased during the American War era when the Mien collaborated with the CIA against Pathet Lao forces; 50,000 Mien refugees have been resettled in the US. Women wear trousers and black jackets with intricately embroidered patches and red furlike collars, along with large dark-blue or black turbans. The Mien are heavily influenced by Chinese traditions and they use Chinese characters to write their language. Kinship is patrilineal and marriage is polygamous. Houses are built at ground level, out of wood or bamboo thatch.

HMONG (MONG OR MAEW)

Population: 151,000

Origin: south China

Present locations: south China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam

Economy: rice, corn, cabbages, strawberries

Belief system: animism

Cultural characteristics: The Hmong are Thailand’s second-largest hill-tribe group and are especially numerous in Chiang Mai Province with smaller enclaves in the other northern Thai provinces. They usually live on mountain peaks or plateaus above 1000m. Tribespeople wear simple black jackets and indigo or black baggy trousers (White Hmong) with striped borders or indigo skirts (Blue Hmong) and silver jewellery. Sashes may be worn around the waist, and embroidered aprons draped front and back. Most women wear their hair in a large bun. Houses are built on ground level. Kinship is patrilineal and polygamy is permitted.

KAREN (YANG OR KARIANG)

Population: 428,000

Origin: Myanmar

Present locations: Thailand, Myanmar

Economy: rice, vegetables, livestock

Belief system: animism, Buddhism, Christianity, depending on the group

Cultural characteristics: The Karen are the largest hill-tribe group in Thailand and number about 47% of the total tribal population. They tend to live in lowland valleys and practise crop rotation rather than swidden agriculture. Their numbers and proximity to mainstream society have made them the most integrated and financially successful of the hill-tribe groups. Thickly woven V-neck tunics of various colours (unmarried women wear white) are typically worn. Kinship is matrilineal and marriage is monogamous. Karen homes are built on low stilts or posts, with the roofs swooping quite low. There are four distinct Karen groups – the Skaw (White) Karen, Pwo Karen, Pa-O (Black) Karen and Kayah (Red) Karen.

EDUCATION

Free public schooling is compulsory for nine years and is available for 12 years. Prior to the creation of a ministry of education in the late 19th century, the Buddhist temples provided the bulk of public education to boys who had entered the monastery. Although education is highly regarded, Thailand’s public schools are often criticised for emphasising rote learning over critical thinking. Several attempts to reform the system in the early 2000s introduced child-focused learning methods but the efforts were regarded as having little tangible results. Thai public schools are particularly successful in creating citizens