The Box - Marc Levinson [189]
26. Fairplay, July 1, 1971; UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport 1972–73, p. 80, and 1975, p. 44.
27. Office of Technology Assessment, An Assessment of Maritime Technology and Trade, p. 72.
28. U.S. General Accounting Office, Centralized Department of Defense Management of Cargo Shipped in Containers Would Save Millions and Improve Service (Washington, DC, 1977).
29. Author’s telephone interview with Cliff Sayre, former vice president of transportation at DuPont, January 24, 1992.
30. According to Sayre, DuPont had more than fifty loyalty agreements and had relationships with more than three hundred individual ocean carriers in 1978.
31. Prior to containerization, Evergreen Line operated as a nonconference carrier on the Japan-Red Sea route, pricing 10 to 15 percent below conference rate. On the Japan-India route, however, Evergreen decided to join the conference after finding that Japanese steel mills would not use its services because they had loyalty agreements with the conference. See Fairplay, August 9, 1973, p. 60.
32. Broeze, The Globalisation of the Oceans, p. 65.
33. Fairplay, September 21, 1972, p. 11; November 23, 1972, p. 59; and June 28, 1973, p. 44; Eric Pace, “Freighters’ Rate War Hurting U.S. Exporters,” NYT, September 11, 1980; Fairplay, February 12, 1981, p. 9.
34. James C. Nelson, “The Economic Effects of Transport Deregulation in Australia,” Transport Journal 16, no. 2 (1976): 48–71.
35. U.S. General Accounting Office, Issues in Regulating Interstate Motor Carriers (Washington, DC, 1980), p. 35.
36. Matson Research Corp., The Impact of Containerization, 2:64; U.S. General Accounting Office, Combined Truck/Rail Transportation Service: Action Needed to Enhance Effectiveness (Washington, DC, 1977). One company reported in 1978 that sending a trailer on a flatcar the 1,068 miles from Minneapolis to Atlanta cost $723; the cost of through trucking service for the same commodity was $693. See Frederick J. Beier and Stephen W. Frick, “The Limits of Piggyback: Light at the End of the Tunnel,” Transportation Journal 18, no. 2 (1978): 17.
37. Iain Wallace, “Containerization at Canadian Ports,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 65, no. 3 (1976): 444; “The ‘Minibridge’ That Makes the ILA Boil,” Business Week, May 19, 1975; General Accounting Office, American Seaports—Changes Affecting Operations and Development (Washington, DC, 1979); Lee Dembart, “‘Minibridge’ Shipping Is Raising Costs and Costing Jobs in New York,” NYT, February 27, 1977; Marad, “Current Trends in Port Pricing,” p. 20.
38. Robert E. Gallamore, “Regulation and Innovation: Lessons from the American Railroad Industry,” in Essays in Transportation Economics and Policy: A Handbook in Honor of John R. Meyer, e d. José A. Gómez-Ibañez, William B. Tye, and Clifford Winston (Washington, DC, 1999), p. 515. Number of contracts appears in Wayne K. Talley, “Wage Differentials of Intermodal Transportation Carriers and Ports: Deregulation versus Regulation,” Review of Network Economics 3, no. 2 (2004): 209. Clifford Winston, Thomas M. Corsi, Curtis M. Grimm, and Carol A. Evans, The Economic Effects of Surface Freight Deregulation (Washington, DC, 1990), p. 41, estimate the total saving from deregulation at $20 billion in 1988 dollars, with the loss to railroad and trucking workers estimated at $3 billion.
39. Gallamore, “Regulation and Innovation, p. 516; John F. Strauss, Jr., The Burlington Northern: An Operational Chronology, 1970–1995, chap. 6, available online at www.fobnr.org/bnstore/ch6.htm; Kuby and Reid, “Technological Change,” p. 282. Paul Stephen Dempsey, “The Law of Intermodal Transportation: What It Was, What It Is, What It Should Be,” Transportation Law Journal 27, no. 3 (2000), looks at the history of regulations governing intermodal freight.
40. Robert C. Waters, “The Military