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——. 1970. “The Historical Quest for the Nature of the Spiral Nebulae.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 82 (December): 1189-1230.

——. 1995. “The Great Debate.” American Scientist 83 (September-October): 410-13.

“Finds Spiral Nebulae Are Stellar Systems.” 1924. New York Times, November 23, p. 6.

Fitzgerald, F. S. 1925. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner's.

Fölsing, A. 1997. Albert Einstein: A Biography. New York: Viking Press.

Franch, J. 2006. Robber Baron: The Life of Charles Tyson Yerkes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Friedmann, A. 1922. “Über die Krümmung des Raumes.” Zeitschrift für Physik 10: 377-86.

Frost, E. B. 1933. An Astronomer's Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Gamow, G. 1970. My World Line. New York: Viking Press.

Gingerich, O. 1975. “Harlow Shapley.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 12. New York: Scribner's.

——. 1978. “James Lick's Observatory.” Pacific Discovery 31: 1-10.

——. 1987. “The Mysterious Nebulae, 1610-1924.” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 81: 113-27.

——. 1988. “How Shapley Came to Harvard; or, Snatching the Prize from the Jaws of Debate.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 19: 201-7.

——. 1990a. “Through Rugged Ways to the Galaxies.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 21: 77-88.

——. 1990b. “Shapley, Hubble, and Cosmology.” In Evolution of the Universe of Galaxies: Edwin Hubble Centennial Symposium, ed. Richard G. Kron. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

——. 2000. “Kapteyn, Shapley and Their Universes.” In The Legacy of J. C. Kapteyn: Studies on Kapteyn and the Development of Modern Astronomy, ed. P. C. Van Der Kruit and K. Berkel. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Gordon, K. J. 1969. “History of Our Understanding of a Spiral Galaxy: Messier 33.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 10: 293-307.

Grigorian, A. T. 1972. “Aleksandr Friedmann.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 5. New York: Scribner's.

Hale, G. E. 1898. “The Function of Large Telescopes.” Science 7 (May 13): 650-62.

——. 1900. “James Edward Keeler.” Science 12 (September 7): 353-57.

——. 1915. Ten Years' Work of a Mountain Observatory. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington.

——. 1922. The New Heavens. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Hale, G. E., W. S. Adams, and F. H. Seares. 1931. “Mount Wilson Observatory.” Carnegie Institution of Washington Year Book 30: 171-221.

Hall, J. S. 1970a. “V M. Slipher's Trailblazing Career.” Sky & Telescope 39 (February): 84-86.

——. 1970b. “Vesto Melvin Slipher.” Year Book of the American Philosophical Society: 161-66.

Hall, M. 1931. “Chaplin Here to See Silent Film Open.” New York Times, February 5, p. 28.

Halley, E. 1714-16. “An Account of Several Nebulae or Lucid Spots Like Clouds, Lately Discovered Among the Fixt Stars by Help of the Telescope.” Philosophical Transactions 29: 390-92.

Hardy, T. 1883. Two on a Tower, 3rd ed. London: Simpson Low.

Hart, R., and R. Berendzen. 1971. “Hubble, Lundmark and the Classification of Non-Galactic Nebulae.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 2: 200.

Herschel, W. 1784a. “On the Remarkable Appearances at the Polar Regions of the Planet Mars; the Inclination of Its Axis, the Position of Its Poles, and Its Spheroidical Figure; with a Few Hints Relating to Its Real Diameter and Atmosphere.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 74: 233-73.

——. 1784b. “Account of Some Observations Tending to Investigate the Construction of the Heavens.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 74: 437-51.

——. 1785. “On the Construction of the Heavens.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 75: 213-66.

——. 1789. “Catalogue of a Second Thousand of New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars; with a Few Introductory Remarks on the Construction of the Heavens.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 79: 212-55.

——. 1791. “On Nebulous Stars, Properly So Called.” Philosophical Transactions of the