The Federalist Papers - Alexander Hamilton [323]
p. 51. Hannibalhad carried her arms into the heart of Italy…: Hannibal (247–183 BC) was a Carthaginian general. In the course of subjugating several Spanish tribes, the young leader attacked Saguntum (219), an ally of Rome, thereby initiating the Second Punic War. Then, in what is considered one of the most remarkable military accomplishments of antiquity, he led an army of 100,000 men (including elephants) over the Alps into northern Italy. The hardships of the expedition reduced the number of men at his command, but Hannibal managed through intelligence and skill to vanquish much larger Roman armies, and to force the Romans into an unaccustomed defensive posture. In 216, at Cannae, he routed and almost annihilated a Roman army of 90,000, but for reasons that remain unclear he neglected to advance on the defenseless city. Ever resilient, Rome recovered and gradually wore down Hannibal’s resources. By 203 BC, the threat of a Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major forced Hannibal to return to North Africa for the defense of Carthage. At the battle of Zama (202 BC), Scipio was victorious and Carthage accepted Roman terms. Having earned the fear and enmity of Carthaginians as well as Romans, Hannibal was forced into exile, and he eventually took his own life to avoid falling into Roman hands.
p. 52. beforeScipio, in turn, gave him an overthrow in the territories of Carthage…: Scipio Africanus Major (approximately 234–183 BC) was a Roman general during the Second Punic War. As a young military tribune, he took part in the disastrous Roman loss to Hannibal at Cannae, and despite his age was appointed leader of the surviving troops. In 205, he was elected consul at Rome—although under the legal age—and decided, against senatorial opposition, to carry the war with Carthage into Africa. When the senate refused to grant an army for this purpose, Scipio called for volunteers. With these he invaded Africa in 204 and by several small victories forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from his nearly unopposed devastation of Italy. At the battle of Zama in 202 BC, Scipio gained a decisive victory, and Carthage was forced to surrender. In 190, he again took the field for Rome, this time against Antiochus III of Syria, whom he quickly defeated. Despite his success, or perhaps because of it, Scipio and his brother were accused of accepting bribes from the Syrian king. The scandal caused Scipio to leave Rome forever. He died at Liternum, in 183.
p. 52. Venice,in later times, figured more than once in wars of ambition…: A coastal city in northeastern Italy, Venice was founded by refugees from the Lombard invasions in the fifth century AD. With a favorable position on the Adriatic, Venice came to dominate the sea routes to the Holy Land and thereby gained enormous power and wealth from the Crusades. The chief executive of the city, known as the Doge, derived his authority from the people, but until the twelfth century suffrage was severely limited. By 1160, in response to the burdens created by increasing territory and a growing economy, the city had adopted a republican form of government. This consisted of a Great Council of Forty-five (handling all political and administrative matters), a Doge (acting as a servant of the state rather than as a monarch), a Minor Council of Six (acting alongside the Doge), and various individual magistrates (to deal with judicial and administrative matters). Around 1300, Venice restricted participation in government to families that had previously performed the duties of magistrates. Fears of the resulting concentration of power led soon afterwards to the formation of the Council of Ten(1310), which was intended to defend the existing regime. By the sixteenth century, Venice had become a virtual oligarchy, and political stagnation combined with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the discovery of the New World brought about a steady decline in Venetian status. After brief periods under French