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in 1931 with a bed capacity of 1,000; its present capacity is 4,100. Its personnel number 975; of them, five are staff psychiatrists and about twenty are resident psychiatrists. Despite such an unfavorable ratio of staff psychiatrists to patients, the staff at Ypsilanti State Hospital is typically engaged in a large variety of therapeutic programs and research projects designed to advance the theory and practice of psychotherapy with the mentally ill.

[1]For a discussion of earlier research on the theory and measurement of systems of belief, see Milton Rokeach: The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books; 1960).

[2]Erik H. Erikson: “Identity and the Life Cycle,” Psychological Issues, Vol. I, Monograph 1 (1959), p. 23.

[3]I am suggesting that ego identity in Erikson’s sense depends not only on trust in parents but also on trust in the dependability of the physical world.

[4]Helen Merrell Lynd: On Shame and the Search for Identity (New York: Harcourt, Brace; 1958), pp. 45–7.

[5]I employ the concept of authority in the same way social psychologists employ the concept of reference persons or reference groups—any source outside the self to whom the person looks for information about facts or norms to guide his actions. The concepts of reference person and reference group have received increasing attention in recent years, and the research presented in Part Two of this work is intended as a contribution to the literature on this subject. See: H. H. Hyman: “The Psychology of Status,” Archives of Psychology, Vol. XV (1942); R. K. Merton and Alice S. Kitt: “Reference Groups,” in L. A. Coser and B. Rosenberg (Eds.): Sociological Theory (New York: Macmillan; 1957), pp. 264–72; T. M. Newcomb: Social Psychology (New York: Dryden; 1950); M. Sherif: “Reference Groups in Human Relations,” in L. A. Coser and B. Rosenberg (Eds.): Sociological Theory (New York: Macmillan; 1957), pp. 258–63; T. Shibutani: “Reference Groups as Perspectives,” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 60 (1955), pp. 562–9; R. H. Turner: “Role-Taking, Role Standpoint, and Reference-Group Behavior,” in L. A. Coser and B. Rosenberg (Eds.): Sociological Theory (New York: Macmillan; 1957), pp. 272–90.

[6]Erikson, however, uses the term ideology to refer to unconscious tendencies that underlie religious, political, and scientific thought. His conception of ideology seems to be closer to our conception of primitive beliefs and beliefs about authority. See Erik H. Erikson: Young Man Luther (New York: Norton; 1958), p. 22.

[7]It may be suggested that what Erikson calls group identity develops through beliefs about authority and peripheral beliefs; ego identity develops through primitive beliefs.

[8]Lynd: op. cit., pp. 14–15.

[9]O. S. S. Assessment Staff: Assessment of Men (New York: Rinehart; 1948).

[10]Solomon E. Asch: Social Psychology (New York: Prentice-Hall; 1952).

[11] Robert J. Lifton: Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism (New York: Norton; 1961); Edgar H. Shein: “The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War,” Psychiatry, Vol. II (1956), pp. 149–72; Nathan Leites and Elsa Bernant: Ritual of Liquidation (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press; 1954); Arthur Koestler: Darkness At Noon (New York: Macmillan; 1941).

[12]Lifton: op. cit., p. 68.

[13]Lifton: op. cit., p. 467.

[14] The literature on attitude change is too voluminous to cite here. Recent theory and research on attitude organization and change can be found in Leon Festinger: A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson: 1957); Fritz Heider: The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: Wiley; 1958); Daniel Katz and Ezra Stotland: “A Preliminary Statement to a Theory of Attitude Structure and Change,” in S. Koch (Ed.): Psychology: A Study of Science, Vol. III (New York: McGraw-Hill; 1959); C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum: The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press; 1957); Helen Peak, Barbara Muney, and Margaret Clay: “Opposites Structures, Defenses, and Attitudes,” in Psychological Monographs, Whole No. 495,