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–1789, 2nd ed. (London, 2001); and W. Doyle, The Old European Order, 1500–1800 (New York, 1996). On enlightened absolutism, see H. M. Scott, ed., Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1990), and D. Beales, Enlightenment and Reform in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York, 2005). Good studies of individual states include J. Black, Eighteenth-Century Britain, 1688–1783 (New York, 2001); P. R. Campbell, The Ancien Regime in France (Oxford, 1988); E. Wangermann, The Austrian Achievement, 1700–1800 (London, 1973); J. Gagliardo, Germany Under the Old Regime (London, 1995); J. Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (Oxford, 1989); C. Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (Cambridge, Mass., 2006); P. Dukes, The Making of Russian Absolutism, 1613–1801, 2nd ed. (London, 1990); and D. Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period (London, 1991). Good biographies of some of Europe’s monarchs include G. MacDonough, Frederick the Great (New York, 2001); I. De Madariaga, Catherine the Great: A Short History, 2nd ed. (New Haven, Conn., 2002); V. Rounding, Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power (New York, 2007); T. C. W. Blanning, Joseph II (New York, 1994); and J. Black, George III: America’s Last King (New Haven, Conn., 2006).

CHAPTER TIMELINE

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EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY WARFARE The warfare of this period is examined in M. S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1615–1789 (New York, 1998).

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CHANGE A good introduction to European population can be found in M. W. Flinn, The European Demographic System, 1500–1820 (Brighton, 1981). One of the best works on family and marriage patterns is L. Stone, The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500–1800 (New York, 1977). On wet nurses and infanticide, see G. Sussman, Selling Mother’s Milk: The Wet-Nursing Business (Bloomington, Ind., 1982), and M. Jackson, Newborn Child Murder: Women, Illegitimacy, and the Courts in Eighteenth-Century England (New York, 1996). On England’s agricultural revolution, see M. Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England (Cambridge, 1996). Eighteenth-century cottage industry and the beginnings of industrialization are examined in M. Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700–1820 (Oxford, 1985).

THE SOCIAL ORDER On the European nobility, see J. Dewald, The European Nobility, 1400–1800, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 2004), and H. M. Scott, The European Nobility in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1995). On the peasantry, see J. Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1978), and R. Evans, ed., The German Peasantry (New York, 1986). On European cities, see J. de Vries, European Urbanization, 1500– 1800 (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). On the lower urban classes, see R. M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor in Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988). There is no better work on the problem of poverty than O. Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford, 1974).

Visit the CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for additional study tools and review materials for this chapter.

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CHAPTER 19

A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon

The storming of the Bastille

© The Art Archive/Marc Charmet

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CHAPTER OUTLINE AND FOCUS QUESTIONS

The Beginning of the Revolutionary Era: The American Revolution

What were the causes and results of the American Revolution, and what impact did it have on Europe?

Background to the French Revolution

What were the long-range and immediate causes of the French Revolution?

The French Revolution

What were the main events of the French Revolution between 1789 and 1799? What role did each of the following play in the French Revolution: lawyers, peasants, women, the clergy, the Jacobins, the sansculottes, the French revolutionary army, and the Committee of Public Safety?

The Age of Napoleon

Which aspects of the French Revolution did Napoleon preserve, and which did he destroy?