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in overthrowing unwanted governments. The French Revolution became the classic political and social model for revolution. At the same time, the liberal and national political ideals created by the Revolution and spread through Europe by Napoleon’s conquests dominated the political landscape of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

CHAPTER TIMELINE

CHAPTER REVIEW

Upon Reflection

How was France changed by the revolutionary events of 1789 to 1792, and who benefited the most from these changes?

Why did the French Revolution enter a radical phase, and what did that radical phase accomplish?

In what ways did Napoleon’s policies reject the accomplishments of the French Revolution? In what ways did his policies strengthen the Revolution’s accomplishments?

Key Terms

revolution

old order

sans-culottes

Girondins

Mountain

nation in arms

de-Christianization

prefects

Continental system

nationalism

Suggestions for Further Reading

GENERAL WORKS A well-written introduction to the French Revolution can be found in W. Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 2003). On the entire revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, see O. Connelly, The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth, Tex., 2000). A brief work is J. D. Popkin et al., A Short History of the French Revolution, 4th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2005). Two comprehensive reference works are S. F. Scott and B. Rothaus, eds., Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1985), and F. Furet and M. Ozouf, A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, trans. A. Goldhammer (Cambridge, Mass., 1989). See also G. Kates, ed., The French Revolution, 2nd ed. (London, 2006).

EARLY YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION The origins of the French Revolution are examined in W. Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution, 3rd ed. (Oxford, 1999), and P. R. Cambell, ed., Origins of the French Revolution (New York, 2006), a collection of essays. On the early years of the Revolution, see M. Kennedy, The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution: The First Years (Princeton, N.J., 1982); N. Hampson, Prelude to Terror (Oxford, 1988); and T. Tackett, Becoming a Revolutionary (Princeton, N.J., 1996), on the deputies to the National Assembly. For interesting insight into Louis XVI and French society, see T. Tackett, When the King Took Flight (Cambridge, Mass., 2003).

RADICAL REVOLUTION Important works on the radical stage of the French Revolution include D. Andress, The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (New York, 2005); R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled (New York, 1965), a classic; and R. Cobb, The People’s Armies (London, 1987). For a biography of Robespierre, one of the leading figures of this period, see R. Scurr, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York, 2006). The importance of the revolutionary wars in the radical stage of the Revolution is underscored in T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (New York, 1996). On the Directory, see M. Lyons, France Under the Directory (Cambridge, 1975).

WOMEN On the role of women in revolutionary France, see O. J. Hufton, Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution (Toronto, 1992), and J. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y., 1988).

NAPOLEON The best biography of Napoleon is S. Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life (New York, 2004). Also valuable are G. J. Ellis, Napoleon (New York, 1997); M. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution (New York, 1994); and the massive biographies by F. J. McLynn, Napoleon: A Biography (London, 1997), and A. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997). See also I. Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (New York, 2002), and A. I. Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (New York, 2003), on Napoleon’s Grand Empire. On Napoleon’s wars, see O. Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns, 3rd ed. (Lanham, Md., 2006), and D. A. Bell, The First Total