What You Can Change _. And What You Can't - Martin E. Seligman [144]
9. The woodworking-film experiment was reported by M. Horowitz, “Intrusive and Repetitive Thoughts After Experimental Stress,” Archives of General Psychiatry 32 (1975): 1457–63.
10. This case is adapted from I. Marks, S. J. Rachman, and R. Hodgson, “Treatment of Chronic Obsessive-Compulsive Neurosis by in Vivo Exposure,” British Journal of Psychiatry 127 (1975): 349–64.
11. J. Greist, “Treatment for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Psychotherapies, Drugs, and Other Somatic Treatment,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 51 (1990): 44–50. For a complete review of the dozen or more outcome studies of behavior therapy for OCD, see Rachman and Hodgson, Obsessions and Compulsions, 299–358; and DeSilva and Rachman, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, 53–54.
CHAPTER 8 Depression
1. I have spent most of my life writing about depression. Much of the material in this chapter is adapted from other things I have written, particularly from chapter 4, “Ultimate Pessimism,” in Learned Optimism (New York: Knopf, 1991), 54–70.
2. See Seligman, Learned Optimism, for the grand tour of explanatory style. Detailed reviews of explanatory style and depression, and extensive bibliographies, can be found in C. Peterson and M. Seligman, “Causal Explanations as a Risk Factor for Depression: Theory and Evidence,” Psychological Review 91 (1984): 347–74; in P. Sweeney, K. Anderson, and S. Bailey, “Attributional Style in Depression: A Meta-analytic Review,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 974–91; and in L. Abramson, G. Metalsky, and L. Alloy, “Hopelessness Depression: A Theory-Based Process-Oriented Sub-Type of Depression,” Psychological Review 96 (1989): 358–72.
3. L. Robins, J. Helzer, M. Weissman, H. Orvaschel, E. Gruenberg, J. Burke, and J. Regier, “Lifetime Prevalence of Specific Psychiatric Disorders in Three Sites,” Archives of General Psychiatry 41 (1984): 949–958G; G. Klerman and M. Weissman, “Increasing Rates of Depression,” Journal of the American Medical Association 261 (1989): 2229–35.
4. G. Klerman, P. Lavori, J. Rice, T. Reich, J. Endicott, N. Andreason, M. Keller, and R. Hirschfeld, “Birth-Cohort Trends in Rates of Major Depressive Disorder Among Relatives of Patients with Affective Disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry 42 (1985): 689–93.
5. The finding that depression now starts younger comes from the elegant mathematization of the data from a study by T. Reich, P. Van Eerdewegh, J. Rice, J. Mullaney, G. Klerman, and J. Endicott, “The Family Transmission of Primary Depressive Disorder,” Journal of Psychiatric Research 21 (1987): 613–24.
6. P. Lewinsohn, P. Rohde, and J. Seeley, “Birth-Cohort Changes in the Occurrence of Depression: Are We Experiencing an Epidemic of Depression?” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102 (1993): 110–20.
7. This is an area so obscured by ideology that you should be guided to the best disinterested study. I recommend the very careful review of the topic by S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Sex Differences in Depression: Theory and Evidence,” Psychological Bulletin 101 (1987): 259–82. A longer version is S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Sex Differences in Depression (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1990). An exhaustive bibliography of the topic and of the controversy discussed in the next few paragraphs of chapter 8 can be found there.
8. The most detailed argument for the close symptom correspondence of learned helplessness and DSM-3-diagnosed depression is made by J. Weiss, P. Simson, M. Ambrose, A. Webster, and L. Hoffman, “Neurochemical Basis of Behavioral Depression,” Advances in Behavioral Medicine 1 (1985): 253–75. This paper and the important work of Sherman and Petty (below) also lay out the powerful brain-chemistry and pharmacological similarities between learned helplessness and depression (see A. Sherman and F. Petty, “Neurochemical Basis of Antidepressants on Learned Helplessness,” Behavioral and Neurological Biology 30 [1982]: 119–34).
9. Three psychologists have made the major contributions to the recent study of rumination: Julius Kuhl, Susan Nolen-Hoeksema,