Why Is Sex Fun__ The Evolution of Human Sexuality - Jared M. Diamond [62]
A second objection notes that men in traditional societies had no opportunity to choose their spouse, whether on the basis of sexual ornamentation or any other quality. Instead, marriages were arranged by clan relatives, who did the choosing, often with the motive of cementing political alliances. In reality, though, bride prices in traditional societies, such as the New Guinea societies where I work, vary according to a woman’s desirability, the woman’s health and probable mothering qualities being important considerations. That is, although a bridegroom’s views about his bride’s sex appeal may be ignored, his relatives who actually select the bride do not ignore their own views. In addition, men certainly consider a woman’s sex appeal in selecting partners for extramarital sex, which is likely to account for a higher proportion of babies in traditional societies (where husbands don’t get to follow their sexual preferences in selecting their wives) than in modern societies. Furthermore, remarriage following divorce or the death of the first spouse is very common in traditional societies, and men in those societies have more freedom in selecting their second spouse.
The remaining objection notes that culturally influenced beauty standards vary with time, and that individual men within the same society differ in their tastes. Skinny women may be out this year but in next year, and some men prefer skinny women every year. However, that fact is no more than noise slightly complicating but not invalidating the main conclusion: that men at all places and times have on the average preferred well-nourished women with beautiful faces.
We have seen that several classes of human sexual signals—men’s muscles, facial beauty, and women’s body fat concentrated in certain places—apparently conform to the truth-in-advertising model. However, as I mentioned in discussing animals’ signals, different signals may conform to different models. That’s also true of humans. For example, the pubic and axillary hair that both men and women have evolved to grow in adolescence is a reliable but wholly arbitrary signal of attainment of reproductive maturity. Hair in those locations differs from muscles, beautiful faces, and body fat in that it carries no deeper message. It costs little to grow, and it makes no direct contribution to survival or to nursing babies. Poor nutrition may leave you with a scrawny body and disfigured face, but it rarely causes your pubic hair to fall out. Even weak ugly men and skinny ugly women sport axillary hair. Men’s beards, body hair, and low-pitched voices as signals of adolescence, and men’s and women’s hair whitening as a signal of age, seem equally devoid of inner meaning. Like the red spot on a gull’s bill and many other animal signals, these human signals are cheap and wholly arbitrary—many other signals can be imagined that would serve equally well.
Is there any human signal that exemplifies the operation of Fisher’s runaway selection model or Zahavi’s handicap principle? At first, we seem devoid of exaggerated signaling structures comparable to a widowbird’s sixteen-inch tail. On reflection, however, I wonder whether we actually do sport one such structure: a man’s penis. One might object that it serves a nonsignaling function and is nothing more than well-designed reproductive machinery. However, that is not a serious objection to my speculation: we have already seen that women’s breasts simultaneously constitute signals and reproductive machinery. Comparisons with our ape relatives hint that the size of the human penis similarly exceeds bare functional requirements, and that that excess size may serve as a signal. The length of the erect penis is only about 1¼ inches in gorillas