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“Do you know Jones?” “What Jones?” “Preacher Jones.” “Where does he live?” “At home.” “Where is his home?” “In Dixie.” Cooney, “Southern California in Civil War Days,” p. 58. Such details might seem to strain credibility, but in fact mid-nineteenth-century America was rife with secret political societies of all sorts—most famously the Know-Nothings and, later, the Ku Klux Klan—that drew on Romantic fantasies, the faddish appeal of medieval chivalry, and the general craze for fraternal organizations.

35. Hugh A. Gorley, The Loyal Californians of 1861 (n.p., 1893), p. 4.

36. William T. Sherman, Memoirs, 2nd ed. (New York, 1887), vol. 1, pp. 196–97; William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography (New York, 1981), pp. 74–75; John Y. Simon, ed., The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, vol. 2: April-September 1861 (Carbondale, Ill., 1969), pp. 25–28.

37. Christopher Phillips, Damned Yankee: The Life of General Nathaniel Lyon (Baton Rouge, La., 1996), p. 134.

38. See Jeffrey C. Stone, Slavery, Southern Culture, and Education in Little Dixie, Missouri, 1820–1860 (New York, 2006); Louis Gerteis, Civil War St. Louis (Lawrence, Kans., 2001), pp. 37–38.

39. Charles Dickens, passing through in 1842, described the old French buildings “lop-sided with age” that “hold their heads askew besides, as if they were grimacing in astonishment at the American Improvements.” American Notes, quoted in Arenson, Great Heart, p. 15.

40. Galusha Anderson, A Border City in the Civil War (Boston, 1908), pp. 1–3, 9.

41. Stephen Aron, American Confluence: The Missouri Frontier from Borderland to Border State (Bloomington, Ind., 2006), pp. 235–36.

42. Arenson, Great Heart, pp. 19–20; Steven Rowan and James Neal Primm, eds., Germans for a Free Missouri: Translations from the St. Louis Radical Press, 1857–1862 (Columbia, Mo., 1983), p. 88; Don Heinrich Tolzmann, ed., and William G. Bek, trans., The German Element in St. Louis: A Translation of Ernst D. Kargau’s “St. Louis in Former Years: A Commemorative History of the German Element” (Baltimore, 2000), pp. 42, 179–80.

43. Rowan and Primm, Germans for a Free Missouri, pp. 3–4; Lea VanderVelde, Mrs. Dred Scott: A Life on Slavery’s Frontier (New York, 2009), pp. 320, 424.

44. Hans Christian Adamson, Rebellion in Missouri: 1861 (Philadelphia, 1961), p. 72; Aron, American Confluence, p. 241.

45. Arenson, Great Heart, p. 111; Gerteis, Civil War St. Louis, p. 79; Walter Harrington Ryle, Missouri: Union or Secession (Nashville, 1931), pp. 179–80; Anderson, Border City, pp. 41–42; James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764–1980 (St. Louis, 1998), p. 233.

46. A. A. Dunson, “Notes on the Missouri Germans on Slavery,” Missouri Historical Review, vol. 54, no. 3 (April 1965), pp. 355–58; Walter B. Stevens, St. Louis: The Fourth City, 1764–1911 (St. Louis, 1911), vol. 1, p. 165.

47. Ella Lonn, “The Forty-Eighters in the Civil War,” in A. E. Zucker, ed., The Forty-Eighters: Political Refugees of the German Revolution of 1848 (New York, 1967), pp. 186–87; Stephen D. Engle, Yankee Dutchman: The Life of Franz Sigel (Fayetteville, Ark., 1993), chaps. 1–2; Carl Wittke, Refugees of Revolution: The German Forty-Eighters in America (Philadelphia, 1952), p. 88; Lawrence O. Christensen et al., eds., Dictionary of Missouri Biography (Columbia, Mo., 1999), pp. 138–40; Henry Boernstein, ed., Steven Rowan and James Neal Primm, Memoirs of a Nobody: The Missouri Years of an Austrian Radical (St. Louis, 1997), pp. 4–6; Rowan and Primm, Germans for a Free Missouri, pp. 35–43; Ernest Kirschten, Catfish and Crystal (St. Louis, 1989), pp. 247–48.

48. Anzeiger des Westens, Dec. 17, 1860, in Rowan and Primm, Germans for a Free Missouri, p. 147; Kirschten, Catfish and Crystal, p. 245; Missouri Republican [St. Louis], Nov. 4, 1860. Confusingly, St. Louis’s leading Democratic newspaper was called the Missouri Republican, while its leading Republican paper was called the Missouri Democrat.

49. Rowan and Primm, Germans for a Free Missouri, pp. 27–28; Anzeiger des Westens, May 24, 1860, in ibid., p. 113.

50. James Peckham, Gen. Nathaniel