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and females, have typically classified instrumental traits, such as self-reliance and leadership ability, as masculine and expressive traits, such as warmth and understanding, as feminine. Rather than seeing masculinity and femininity as alternatives, many psychologists now recognize androgyny, the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual.

Set Differences in Cognition

Meta-analysis of research on gender comparisons indicates that, for cognitive skills, the differences within either gender are larger than the differences between the two genders. Males tend to have better ability to perform mental rotation tasks. The only evidence that males show higher achievement in mathematics than females is on the math section of the SAT; females receive higher grades in mathematics courses than males. Recent findings suggest that females who get better grades in high school and college may test more poorly because of a phenomenon known as stereotype threat, anxiety that influences members of a group concerned that their performance will confirm a negative stereotype. According to Claude Steele, when they know that their performance is being compared to that of males, girls tend to do less well than if they are not being compared.

Review Questions

Directions: For each question, choose the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. What is the response pattern of securely attached children in the Strange Situation when their mothers return?

(A) They tend to ignore their mothers because they are secure about her care.

(B) Sometimes they run over to their mothers and sometimes they do not; there’s no consistent pattern in their responses.

(C) They tend to run over to their mothers and beg them not to leave again.

(D) They tend to go to their mothers for comfort.

(E) They hit their mothers.

2. In the nature versus nurture controversy, “nature” refers to

(A) heredity

(B) plants and animals

(C) all living things we interact with

(D) constituents of the problem

(E) the environment

3. Researchers were interested in studying the effects of divorce on children. Their study included 250 4-year-olds. Interviews and family observations were conducted 6 months, 2 years, 5 years, and 10 years after the initial interviews and observations. Which method did the researcher use?

(A) cohort sequential

(B) cross sectional

(C) longitudinal

(D) experimental

(E) quasi-experimental

4. Object permanence is

(A) the belief that all objects have life just like humans do

(B) the idea that gender does not change by putting on the clothes of the opposite sex

(C) the understanding that a tall beaker and a short beaker can hold the same amount of water

(D) a belief that all objects in the world, including mountains and streams, are made by people

(E) the understanding that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight

5. The rooting reflex is a neonate’s tendency to

(A) open its mouth and turn its head when touched on the cheek

(B) throw out its arms and legs and quickly retract them when startled

(C) explore the world through sucking objects

(D) look longer at round shapes that look like faces than square shapes that do not

(E) grasp nearby objects

6. Dorothy just celebrated her 90th birthday with her close friends, and is excited about a visit from her grandchildren. According to Erikson, she has probably most recently achieved

(A) isolation

(B) integrity

(C) despair

(D) autonomy

(E) industry

7. Mr. Hernandez explains to his son that the speed limit is 55 mph. He tells him to stay under the speed limit when driving because it’s the law and will probably prevent accidents. Kohlberg’s level of morality illustrated by this example is

(A) preconventional

(B) concrete operational

(C) conventional

(D) egocentric

(E) postconventional

8. A critical period is a stage in development when

(A) specific stimuli have a major effect on development that they do not produce