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researched, and most widely used self-report personality tests is the MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2), composed of 567 true-false items. The items were originally chosen from among hundreds given to groups of people diagnosed with psychological disorders as well as “normal” people. Items that differentiated between the patient group and the normal group were included in the test; items that didn’t were eliminated. Each item needed to correlate highly with some trait or dimension of personality. The test has 10 clinical scales such as schizophrenia and depression; 15 content scales such as anger and family problems, and validity scales to detect whether or not a person is lying. The tests are scored objectively, usually by computer, and charted as an MMPI-2 profile. Patterns of responses reveal personality dimensions. By comparing someone’s profile to the profile of the normal group, psychologists identify abnormalities. Employers sometimes compare the profile of a job applicant to the profile of successful employees in making employment decisions. As well researched and carefully constructed as the MMPI-2 is, its validity is not guaranteed, and some psychologists think peer reports yield more valid information. Two assessments designed to assess personality based on the five-factor model in healthy people have been gaining in popularity: the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) and the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ), which is being used in cross-cultural research.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Our self-concept is our overall view of our abilities, behavior, and personality or what we know about ourselves. Self-esteem is one part of our self-concept, or how we evaluate ourselves. Our self-esteem is affected by our emotions and comes to mean how worthy we think we are. The self-concept is immature in youth but broadens and becomes more complex and individualized as we get older. For example, we understand that we can be attractive physically, but that we have strengths and weaknesses in many diverse areas beyond physical and mental abilities. Parents and educators can help children increase their self-worth and raise their self-esteem by highlighting the youngsters’ strengths. Low self-esteem can lead to depression when a person thinks he/she is unable to realize his/her hopes, whereas it can lead to anxiety when a person thinks he/she is unable to do what he/she should.

Review Questions

Directions: For each question, choose the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Adam loved the girlfriend who dropped him, but acts as if he’s glad to be rid of her. His behavior most clearly illustrates which of the following Freudian defense mechanisms?

(A) repression

(B) projection

(C) reaction formation

(D) sublimation

(E) regression

2. Which Freudian personality system is guided by the reality principle?

(A) id

(B) libido

(C) ego

(D) unconscious

(E) superego

3. In contrast to the blank slate view of human nature held by the behaviorists, humanists believe humans are born

(A) evil and instinctively selfish

(B) good and with an inner drive to reach full potential

(C) neutral and that personality is based on perceptions of reality

(D) neither good nor evil, but personality is a product of their environment

(E) weak and needing others to find a meaning and purpose in life

4. Which of the following is a good example of a Jungian archetype?

(A) John, whose domineering mother’s voice is always in the back of his head

(B) Patty, who is haunted by her memories of child abuse

(C) Yan, who always roots for the underdog

(D) Tariq, who consciously strives to be the best tennis player he can be

(E) Kendra, whose power motive influences everything she does

5. Which is an example of a projective test, consisting of a set of ambiguous pictures about which people are asked to tell a story?

(A) TAT

(B) MMPI-2

(C) 16 PF

(D) NEO-PI

(E) Rorschach

6. In order to determine a client’s personality, Carl Rogers