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1954, A statistical analysis of communication in “Apis mellifera” and a comparison with communication in other animals, Insectes Soc. 1: 247–283. See also RP Fletcher, C Cannings, PG Blackwell 1995, Modelling foraging behaviour of ant colonies, in Advances in Artificial Life, ed. Federico Moran, Alvaro Moreno, Juan J. Merelo, and Pablo Chacón (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1995), pp. 772–783; and J-L Deneubourg, JM Pasteels, JC Verhaeghe 1983, Probabilistic behaviour in ants: A strategy of errors? J Theor. Biol. 105: 259–271.

6. The living chains superficially resemble those made by army ants to form their nests, except in army ants the workers link toe to toe rather than jaw to waist, and army ant chains are passive—they are not used to pull objects together. Other ants can use their own bodies to make bridges, ladders, flanges, curtains, walls, plugs, rafts, and other constructions. See C Anderson, G Theraulaz, J-L Deneubourg 2002, Self-assemblages in insect societies, Insectes Soc. 49: 99–110; and C Anderson, DW McShea 2001, Intermediate-level parts in insect societies: Adaptive structures that ants build away from the nest, Insectes Soc. 48: 291–301.

7. B Hölldobler, EO Wilson 1983, The evolution of communal nest-weaving in ants, Am. Sci. 71: 490–499.

8. B Hölldobler, CJ Lumsden 1980, Territorial strategies in ants, Science 210: 732–739.

9. RK Peng, K Christian, K Gibb 1998, Locating queen ant nests in the green ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, Insectes Soc. 45: 477–480.

10. In Australia, mature colonies can also have multiple queens; see RK Peng, K Christian, K Gibb 1998, How many queens are there in mature colonies of the green ant, Oecophylla smaragdina?, Aust. J. Entomol. 37: 249–253.

11. ML Smith 2007, Territories, corridors, and networks: A biological model for the premodern state, Complexity 12: 28–35.

12. G Beugnon, A Dejean 1992, Adaptive properties of the chemical trail system of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda, Insectes Soc. 39: 341–346; and A Dejean, G Beugnon 1991, Persistent intercolonial trunkroute-marking in the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda: Tom Thumb’s versus Ariadne’s orienting strategies, Ethology 88: 89–98.

13. B Hölldobler, EO Wilson 1978, The multiple recruitment systems of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 3: 19–60.

14. For other examples of ritualized behaviors in ants, see Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson, The Superorganism (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008).

15. Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson, Journey to the Ants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 43.

16. D Leston 1971, Ants, capsids and swollen-shoot in Ghana: Interactions and the implications for pest control, Proc. 3rd Int. Cocoa Res. Conf. Accra (Ghana) (1969), pp. 205–221.

17. Defense of their termite resources is bolstered by preemptive attacks on competing colonies located closest to these prey: CJ Lumsden, B Hölldobler 1983, Ritualized combat and intercolony communication in ants, J. Theor. Biol. 100: 81–98.

18. Some human pastoralists can be viewed, like honeypot ants, as defending their resources (i.e., animal herds) rather than territorial lands per se; Robert L. Kelly and Michael Rosenberg, personal communication; M Rosenberg 1998, Cheating at musical chairs: Territoriality and sedentism in an evolutionary context, Curr. Anthropol. 39: 653–682.

19. Robert L. O’Connell, Ride of the Second Horseman: The Birth and Death of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 49.

20. B Hölldobler 1983, Territorial behavior in the green tree ant (Oecophylla smaragdina), Biotropica 15: 241–250.

21. L Lefebvre, SM Reader, D Sol 2004, Brains, innovations, and evolution in birds and primates, Brain Behav. Evol. 63: 233–246.

22. RL Carneiro 2000, The transition from quantity to quality: A neglected causal mechanism in accounting for social evolution, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 97: 12926–12931. These novel mechanisms can in turn create further surpluses and increases in population; see Elman R. Service, Origins of the State and Civilization (New York: W.W. Norton,