Adventures Among Ants - Mark W. Moffett [176]
38. This issue and many ideas around it are pursued in SP Yanoviak, M Kaspari 2000, Community structure and the habitat templet: Ants in the tropical forest canopy and litter, Oikos 89: 259–266.
39. Army ants ascend trees on occasion but have greater effects on the ground; see M Kaspari, S O’Donnell 2003, High rates of army ant raids in the neotropics and implications for ant colony and community structure, Evol. Ecol. Res. 5: 933–939.
40. D Leston 1970, Entomology of the cocoa farm, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 15: 273–294.
41. The dynamics are similar to the community shifts that occur when gaps open up in the forest when trees die (see chapter 14). See Andrew F. G. Bourke and Nigel R. Franks, Social Evolution in Ants (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995); JD Majer 1976, The maintenance of the ant mosaic in Ghana cocoa farms, J. Appl. Ecol. 13: 123–144; and JD Majer 1976, The influence of ants and ant manipulation on the cocoa farm fauna, J. Appl. Ecol. 13: 157–175.
42. PJ Folgarait 1998, Ant biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem functioning: A review, Biodivers. Conserv. 7: 1221–1244.
43. For examples, see A Floren, A Biun, KE Linsenmair 2002, Arboreal ants as key predators in tropical lowland rainforest trees, Oecologia 131: 137–144.
44. Terry Erwin, personal communication; TL Erwin, The biodiversity question. How many species of terrestrial arthropods are there?, in Forest Canopies, 2d ed., ed. Margaret D. Lowman and H. Bruce Rinker (St. Louis, Mo.: Academic Press, 2004), pp. 259–269.
45. Y Haila 1990, Toward an ecological definition of an island: A northwest European perspective, J. Biogeogr. 17: 561–568; DH Janzen 1973, Host plants as islands. II. Competition in evolutionary and contemporary time, Am. Nat. 107: 786–790.
46. Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson, The Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). I explore the idea of “patchwork biogeography” in MW Moffett 2001, The nature and limits of canopy biology, Selbyana 22: 155–179.
11. Negotiating the Physical World
1. Such height-based differentiation is called stratification, which is broadly defined as “any nonuniform vertical distribution within vegetation”; see MW Moffett 2000, What’s “up”? A critical look at basic terms of canopy biology, Biotropica 32: 569–596.
2. CA Brühl, G Gunsalam, KE Linsenmair 1998, Stratification of ants in a primary rain forest in Sabah, Borneo, J. Trop. Ecol. 14: 285–297. Subterranean ants stratify as well; see KT Ryder-Wilkie, AL Mertl, JFA Traniello 2007, Biodiversity below ground: Probing the subterranean ant fauna of Amazonia, Naturwissenschaften 94: 725–731.
3. Herbicides simplify but do not eliminate this hidden lawn structure. SH Roxburgh, AJ Watkins, JB Wilson 1993, Lawns have vertical stratification, J. Veg. Sci. 4: 699–704. For a description of the universality of strata in communities, see MW Moffett 2001, The nature and limits of canopy biology, Selbyana 22: 155–179.
4. A Lipp, H Wolf, F-O Lehmann 2005, Walking on inclines: Energetics of locomotion in the ant Camponotus, J. Exp. Biol. 208: 707–719.
5. John B. S. Haldane, Possible Worlds, and Other Papers (London: Harper & Brothers, 1928); see also Steven Vogel, Life’s Devices: The Physical World of Animals and Plants (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
6. SP Yanoviak, M Kaspari 2000, Community structure and the habitat templet: Ants in the tropical forest canopy and litter, Oikos 89: 259–266.
7. PD Haemig 1997, Effects of birds on the intensity of ant rain: A terrestrial form of invertebrate drift, Anim. Beh. 54: 89–97; and B Hölldobler 1965, Springende Ameisen, Mitt. Schweiz. entomol. Ges. 30: 80–81.
8. SP Yanoviak, R Dudley, M Kaspari 2005, Directed aerial descent in canopy ants, Nature 433: 624–626.
9. For details, see R Dudley, G Byrnes, SP Yanoviak, B Borrell, R Brown, J McGuire 2007, Gliding and the functional origins of flight: Biomechanical novelty or necessity? Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 38: 179–201.
10. Eberhard Horn, Gravity, in Comprehensive Insect Physiology,