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Biochemistry, and Pharmacology, vol. 6, ed. Gerald A. Kerkut and Lawrence I. Gilbert (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985), pp. 557–576; and Hubert Markl 1974, Perception of gravity and of angular acceleration in invertebrates, in Handbook of Sensory Physiology, vol. 6/1, ed. Hans H. Kornhuber (Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 1974), pp. 17–74. Even ants dwelling in a relatively flat desert environment can be trained to climb specific distances, though they tend to overshoot the correct height; see G Grah, R Wehner, B Ronacher 2007, Desert ants do not acquire and use a three-dimensional global vector, Front. Zool. 4: 12; and G Grah, R Wehner, B Ronacher 2005, Path integration in a three-dimensional maze: Ground distance estimation keeps desert ants Cataglyphis fortis on course, J Exp. Biol. 208: 4005–4011.

11. Francis Hallé, Roelof A. A. Oldeman, and P. Barry Tomlinson, Tropical Trees and Forests: An Architectural Analysis (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1978).

12. Crestline orientation is untested in windblown conditions when the gravity vector would be difficult for ants to measure; see JH Klotz, BL Reid 1992, The use of spatial cues for structural guideline orientation in Tapinoma sessile and Camponotus pennsylvanicus, J. Insect Behav. 5: 71–82; R. Jander 1990, Arboreal search in ants: Search on branches, J. Insect Behav. 3: 515–527; and JH Klotz, SL Cole, HR Kuhns 1985, Crest-line orientation in Camponotus pennsylvanicus, Insectes Soc. 32: 305–312. One temperate ant shows a more random leaf and branch search pattern; see RM Weseloh 2001, Patterns of foraging of the forest ant Formica neogagates on tree branches, Biol. Control 20: 16–22. Ants use similar rules to navigate low-growing plants; see KN Ganeshaiah, T Veena 1988, Plant design and non-random foraging by ants on Croton bonplandianum, Anim. Behav. 36: 1683–1690.

13. CJ Kleineidam, M Ruchty, ZA Casero-Montes, F Roces 2007, Thermal radiation as a learned orientation cue in leaf-cutting ants (Atta vollenweideri), J. Insect Phys. 53: 478–487.

14. R Jander, U Jander 1998, The light and magnetic compass of the weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, Ethology 104: 743–758.

15. B Hölldobler 1980, Canopy orientation: A new kind of orientation in ants, Science 210: 86–88.

16. B Hölldobler 1983, Territorial behavior in the green tree ant (Oecophylla smaragdina), Biotropica 15: 241–250.

17. MD Breed, JM Harrison 1987, Individually discriminable recruitment trails in a ponerine ant, Insectes Soc. 34: 222–226.

18. AP Baader 1996, The significance of visual landmarks for navigation of the giant tropical ant, Paraponera clavata, Insectes Soc. 43: 435–450. Navigating ants can identify the same object from different angles; see SPD Judd, TS Collett 1998, Multiple stored views and landmark guidance in ants, Nature 392: 710–714.

19. JF Harrison, JH Fewell, TM Stiller, MD Breed 1988, Effects of experience on use of orientation cues in the giant tropical ant, Anim. Behav. 37: 869–871.

20. A Lioni, C Sauwens, G Theraulaz, J-L Deneubourg 2001, Chain formation in Oecophylla longinoda, J. Insect Behav. 14: 679–696.

21. U Maschwitz, J Moog 2000, Communal peeing: A new mode of flood control in ants, Naturwissenschaften 87: 563–565.

22. J Moog, T Drude, U Maschwitz, D Agosti 1997, Flood control by ants: Water-bailing behaviour in the Southeast Asian plant-ant genus Cladomyrma, Naturwissenschaften 84: 242–245; and RW Klein, U Maschwitz, D Kovac 1993, Flood control by ants: A South-East Asian bamboo-dwelling Tetraponera bails water from its internode nests, Insectes Soc. 40: 115–118.

23. Carton can also be waterproof because the surface tension of water transforms its porous surface into a complete shield, though buffeting by rain and wind can cause breakage. Thus many carton-nesting species are restricted to the understory, with antgarden ants (chapter 10) shielding their nest beneath garden foliage.

24. N Rastogi 2004, Behavioral strategy of returning foragers of the arboreal ant Oecophylla smaragdina during the monsoon, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 388–391.

25. Deby Cassill, personal communication,