Adventures Among Ants - Mark W. Moffett [194]
32. EG LeBrun, CV Tillberg, AV Suarez, PJ Folgarait, CR Smith, DA Holway 2007, An experimental study of competition between fire ants and Argentine ants in their native range, Ecology 88: 63–75. Fire ants and Argentine ants appear to have shifting, broadly overlapping territories in Argentina, a pattern likely made possible by their low worker densities.
33. G Buczkowski, EL Vargo, J. Silverman 2004, The diminutive supercolony: The Argentine ants of the southeastern United States, Mol. Ecol. 13: 2235–2242.
34. Don Mabry and Pedro Jover, personal communications.
35. D Pimentel, R Zuniga, D Morrison 2005, Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States, Ecol. Econ. 52: 273–288.
Conclusion
1. On the other hand, carefully framed anthropomorphisms are useful in hypotheses: R Lockwood, Anthropomorphism is not a four-letter word, in Perceptions of Animals in American Culture, ed. RJ Hoage (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 1989), pp. 41–56; GM Burghardt 1985, Animal awareness: Current perceptions and historical perspective, Am. Psychol. 40: 905–919; L Daston, G Mitman, Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005); RW Mitchell, NS Thompson, HL Miles, Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes, and Animals (New York: SUNY Press, 1996).
2. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Blackwell Basil, 1958), p. 178. See also J Cole, About Face (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999); C Darwin, Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).
3. D Arendt, K Nübler-Jung 1999, Comparison of early nerve cord development in insects and vertebrates, Development 126: 2309–2325; R Lichtneckert, H Reichert 2005, Insights into the urbilaterian brain: Conserved genetic patterning mechanisms in insect and vertebrate brain development, Heredity 94: 465–477.
4. Lewis Thomas, Lives of the Cell (New York: Viking Press, 1974), p. 12. Douglas R. Hofstadter subsequently made the superorganism idea come alive in his Gödel, Escher, Bach (New York: Basic Books, 1979).
5. Compounding the problem is a lack of agreement on what a “behavior” is; see DA Levitis, WZ Lidicker, G Freund 2009, Behavioural biologists do not agree on what constitutes behaviour, Anim. Behav. 78: 103–110.
6. J Gautrais, G Theraulaz, J-L Deneubourg, C Anderson 2002, Emergent polyethism as a consequence of increased colony size in insect societies, J. Theor. Biol. 215: 363–373; R Jeanson, JH Fewell, R Gorelick, SM Bertram 2007, Emergence of increased division of labor as a function of group size, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62: 289–298.
7. SK Robson, JFA Traniello, Key individuals and the organization of labor in ants, in Information Processing in Social Insects, ed. C Detrain, J-L Deneubourg, JM Pasteels (Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1999), pp. 239–259; GF Oster, EO Wilson, Caste and Ecology in the Social Insects (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1978). For the dishwashing example, thanks to JH Fewell 2003, Social insect networks, Science 301: 1867–1870.
8. JT Costa 2002, Scale models? What insect societies teach us about ourselves, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 146: 170–180.
9. Ovid, Metamorphoses, translated by Rolfe Humphries (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1964), p. 173.
10. Not that one form of society is more “primitive” than another, in either ants or people; nor is change necessarily equally easy in either direction (see n. 35, chapter 15).
11. This brings to mind responses to the Hurricane Katrina disaster in New Orleans, in which decentralized local groups succeeded in providing relief where the government failed: V Bier, Hurricane Katrina as a bureaucratic nightmare, in Risk and Disaster, ed. RJ Daniels, DF Kettl, H Kunreuther (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006),