Adventures Among Ants - Mark W. Moffett [195]
12. This situation of power of the majority over their leaders, referred to as a “reverse dominance hierarchy,” is a modification of the typical linear hierarchy found in most apes: C Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999).
13. One World Bank official has proposed that in addressing global problems hierarchical governments be replaced by networked governance: J-F Rischard 2002, Global issues networks: Desperate times deserve innovative measures, Wash. Q. 26: 17–33.
14. H Reingold, Mobile media and political collective action, in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, ed. JE Katz (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), pp. 225–239.
15. M Granovetter 1983, The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited, Social Theory 1: 201–233.
16. James Carey, personal communication, and JR Carey 2001, Insect biodemography, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 46: 79–110.
17. PJ Wilson, The Domestication of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
18. EA Langridge, NR Franks, AB Sendova-Franks 2004, Improvement in collective performance with experience in ants, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 56: 523–529.
19. As we’ll see shortly, certain ants called ponerines have workers that can serve as queens and so do not fit this pattern, but neither do most organisms; see Leo W. Buss, The Evolution of Individuality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
20. JW Pepper, MD Herron 2008, Does biology need an organism concept? Biol. Rev. 83: 621–627.
21. MD Herron, RE Michod 2008, Evolution of complexity in the volvocine algae: Transitions in individuality through Darwin’s eye, Evolution 62: 436–451; K Drescher, KC Leptos, I Tuval, T Ishikawa, TJ Pedley, RE Goldstein 2009, Dancing Volvox: Hydrodynamic bound states of swimming algae, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102: 168101–168105.
22. MC McCarthy, BJ Enquist 2005, Organismal size, metabolism and the evolution of complexity in metazoans, Evol. Ecol. Res. 7: 681–696.
23. L Lefebvre, D Sol 2008, Brains, lifestyles and cognition: Are there general trends? Brain Behav. Evol. 72: 135–144.
24. M Minsky, The Society of Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985).
25. M Dorigo, V Trianni, E Sahin, R Gross, TH Labella, G Baldassarre, S Nolfi, J-L Deneubourg, F Mondada, D Floreano, LC Gambardella 2004, Evolving self-organizing behaviors for a swarm-bot, Auton. Robots 17: 223–245; MJB Krieger, J-B Billeter, L Keller 2000, Ant-like task allocation and recruitment in cooperative robots, Nature 406: 992–995.
26. R Wehner, T Fukushi, K Isler 2007, On being small: Brain allometry in ants, Brain Behav. Evol. 69: 220–228; W Gronenberg 2008, Structure and function of ant brains: Strength in numbers, Myrmecol. News 11: 25–36.
27. NR Franks 1989, Army ants: A collective intelligence, Am. Sci. 77: 138–145.
28. DS Wilson, JJ Timmel, RR Miller 2004, Cognitive cooperation: When the going gets tough, think as a group, Human Nature 15: 225–250.
29. See, e.g., T Monnin, C Peeters 1999, Dominance hierarchy and reproductive conflicts among subordinates in a monogynous queenless ant, Behav. Ecol. 10: 323–332; J Heinze 2004, Reproductive conflict in insect societies, Adv. Study Behav. 34: 1–58; H Helanterä, L Sundström 2007, Worker reproduction in Formica ants, Am. Nat. 170: E14–E25; HK Reeve, B Hölldobler 2007, The emergence of a superorganism through intergroup competition, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 104: 9736–9740.
30. The reproductive strategies of ponerine colonies are detailed by B Hölldobler, EO Wilson, The Superorganism (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008).
31. S Baratte, M Cobb, C Peeters 2006, Reproductive conflicts and mutilation in queenless Diacamma ants, Anim. Behav. 72: 305–311.
32. In ant societies, as in human societies, policing can serve the self-interest of individuals, the common good, or both: Peter Nonacs, personal communication, and FLW Ratnieks, T Wenseleers 2005, Policing insect societies, Science 307: 54–56.
33. A Burt, R Trivers, Genes in Conflict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2008).
34. A Livnat, N Pippenger